Special Article
Mortality Attributable to Smoking in China
N Engl J Med 2009; 360:150-159January 8, 2009
- Abstract
Background
Smoking is a risk factor for many diseases and has been increasingly prevalent in economically developing regions of the world. We aimed to estimate the number of deaths attributable to smoking in China.
Methods
We conducted a large, prospective cohort study in a nationally representative sample of 169,871 Chinese adults who were 40 years of age or older. Investigators for the China National Hypertension Survey collected data on smoking and other risk factors at a baseline examination in 1991 using a standard protocol. Follow-up evaluation was conducted in 1999 and 2000, with a response rate of 93.4%. We used multivariable-adjusted relative risk, prevalence of smoking, mortality, and population size in each age group, stratified according to sex, to calculate the number of deaths attributable to smoking in 2005.
Results
There was a significant, dose–response association between pack-years smoked and death from any cause in both men and women after adjustment for multiple risk factors (P<0.001 for trend). We estimated that in 2005, a total of 673,000 deaths (95% confidence interval [CI], 564,700 to 781,400) were attributable to smoking in China: 538,200 (95% CI, 455,800 to 620,600) among men and 134,800 (95% CI, 108,900 to 160,800) among women. The leading causes of smoking-related deaths were as follows: cancer, 268,200 (95% CI, 214,500 to 321,900); cardiovascular disease, 146,200 (95% CI, 79,200 to 213,100); and respiratory disease, 66,800 (95% CI, 20,300 to 113,300).
Conclusions
Our study documents that smoking is a major risk factor for mortality in China. Continued strengthening of national programs and initiatives for smoking prevention and cessation is needed to reduce smoking-related deaths in China.
Media in This Article
Figure 1
Number of Deaths Attributable to Smoking in 2005 in China, According to Sex and Urbanization.Table 1
Baseline Characteristics of the Subjects, According to Smoking Status.Article Activity
- Article
Cigarette smoking has been identified as the second leading risk factor for death from any cause worldwide.1,2 In 2000, an estimated 4.83 million deaths were attributed to cigarette smoking globally, with nearly half occurring in the developing world.1,3 Because many low- and middle-income countries are still in early stages of the tobacco epidemic, the number of smoking-related deaths in these nations will probably increase during the next decades.3-5
With a population of 1.3 billion, China is the world's largest producer and consumer of tobacco and bears a large proportion of deaths attributable to smoking worldwide.6,7 Even though several prospective cohort studies have examined the relationship between tobacco smoking and mortality in the Chinese population,8-11 the number of deaths attributable to smoking in China is still uncertain. Most previous prospective cohort studies in China were conducted in regional or occupational groups with a relatively small sample size9-11 or did not have an active follow-up procedure for mortality.8
We used data from a large, prospective cohort study in a nationally representative sample of Chinese adults to examine the effect of tobacco smoking on deaths from any cause and from certain specific causes, as well as to estimate the population attributable risk and the number of deaths attributable to smoking in men and women in 2005. We offer these estimates as China moves forward with tobacco-control initiatives, reflecting its commitments through its ratification of the World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.12
Methods
Study Population
In 1991, the China National Hypertension Survey was carried out in all 30 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities of mainland China with the use of a multistage design of random cluster sampling to select a nationally representative sample of the Chinese general population who were 15 years of age or older.13 The overall response rate was 89.5%. In 1999 and 2000, investigators from each province were invited to participate in the China National Hypertension Survey Epidemiology Follow-up Study. Of the 30 provinces, 13 were not included in the follow-up study because contact information was not available for study subjects. However, the sampling process was conducted independently within each province in 1991, and the 17 provinces that were included in the follow-up study were evenly distributed in different geographic regions representing various levels of economic development in China. From the 17 provinces, 169,871 study subjects (83,533 men and 86,338 women) who were 40 years of age or older at their baseline examination were eligible to participate in the follow-up study.
For this report, we excluded 14,740 subjects who had missing information regarding tobacco-smoking status, since data on smoking were not collected in two provinces. The baseline characteristics of subjects from the remaining 15 provinces that were included in this analysis were similar to those in the 15 excluded provinces. In the two groups, respectively, the mean baseline ages were 55.9 and 55.3 years; the percentages of subjects who had a high-school education were 24.0% and 23.4%; who consumed alcohol, 19.8% and 18.7%; who were physically inactive, 37.0% and 36.6%; and who had ever smoked cigarettes, 37.9% and 36.7%. Of 155,131 eligible subjects (76,134 men and 78,997 women) from the 15 provinces that were included in this analysis, a total of 144,088 (92.9%) underwent successful follow-up.
Baseline Examination
Baseline data were collected at a single clinic visit by specially trained physicians and nurses with the use of standardized methods with stringent levels of quality control.13 Data on demographic characteristics, medical history, and lifestyle risk factors were obtained with the use of a standard questionnaire administered by trained staff. Tobacco smoking was defined as having smoked at least one cigarette per day for 1 year or more, and one cigarette was considered to be equivalent to 1 g of tobacco.14 For subjects who reported past or current tobacco smoking, information on the number of cigarettes or grams of tobacco smoked per day, along with the duration of tobacco smoking, was also collected. Work-related physical activity was assessed, since leisure-time physical activity was uncommon at that time in China. Data on the amount and type of alcohol consumption during the past year were collected. Body weight and height were measured while subjects were wearing light indoor clothing without shoes, and the body-mass index was calculated. Three blood-pressure measurements were taken after the subject had been seated quietly for 5 minutes with the use of a standard mercury sphygmomanometer, according to a standard protocol.15
Follow-up Data Collection
The follow-up examination, which was conducted between 1999 and 2000, included tracking subjects or their proxies to a current address, performing in-depth interviews to ascertain disease status and vital information, and obtaining hospital records and death certificates. Of all deaths reported, vital information was provided by family members (75.0%), primary care physicians (12.6%), other health care providers (3.8%), and employers, relatives, or friends (8.5%). If a subject died while he or she was hospitalized, the subject's hospital record — including medical history, findings from physical examination, laboratory findings, autopsy findings, and discharge diagnosis — was abstracted by trained staff with the use of a standard form. Photocopies of selected sections of the subject's inpatient record, discharge summary, electrocardiogram, spirometry, chest radiograph, and pathology reports were also obtained. If death occurred outside the hospital, a detailed medical history was obtained from a family member or health care provider. Subjects' previous medical records were also obtained, if available. The majority of deaths (98.6%) that were reported during follow-up were verified by death certificates, medical records, or both.
An end-point assessment committee at the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences in Beijing reviewed medical history information and death certificates and determined the final underlying cause of death with the use of prespecified criteria.16 Two committee members independently verified the diagnosis, and discrepancies were adjudicated by discussion involving additional committee members. All committee members were unaware of the subjects' baseline risk factors. Causes of death were coded according to the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision.
This study was approved by the institutional review board at Tulane University Health Sciences Center in New Orleans and the ethics committee at the Cardiovascular Institute and Fu Wai Hospital in Beijing. Written informed consent was obtained from all study subjects or their proxies at the follow-up visit. The study's steering committee had the final responsibility for the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Statistical Analysis
Person-years of follow-up were calculated from the date of baseline examination until the date of death or follow-up interview for each subject. Age-standardized mortality was calculated with the use of the 5-year age-specific mortality and age distribution of the Chinese population from year 2000 census data. Relative risks were calculated for subjects who had ever smoked with the use of lifelong nonsmokers as the reference category because current and former smokers had similar rates of death from any cause. Only a small number of subjects (3533 in total, including 2965 men and 568 women) reported being former smokers. Cox proportional-hazards models were used to adjust for prespecified covariates, including baseline age, level of education, alcohol consumption, level of physical activity, and the presence or absence of hypertension, overweight status, and self-reported diabetes, as well as geographic region (north vs. south) and urbanization (rural vs. urban), since the prevalence of cigarette smoking and mortality vary according to geographic region and level of urbanization in China. To examine the dose–response relationship between tobacco smoking and mortality in men and women, subjects who had ever smoked were divided into three groups, according to the number of pack-years smoked (<16.1, 16.1 to 30.3, and ≥30.3).
The multivariable-adjusted relative risks of death associated with smoking were obtained for each subgroup according to the level of urbanization (urban vs. rural), sex, and age group (40 to 54, 55 to 64, and ≥65 years). These estimates, along with the subgroup-specific proportion of smokers from a national survey,7 were used to calculate the population attributable risk and 95% confidence intervals for each subgroup.17 The population attributable risk was calculated with the use of the following equation (in which PAR denotes the population attributable risk, P the proportion of smokers, and RR relative risk):
PAR = (P × [RR − 1]) ÷ (P × [RR − 1] + 1).
The overall relative risks or population attributable risks of death associated with smoking were calculated for men and women by pooling the subgroup-specific estimates of the natural logarithms of relative risks or population attributable risks for subjects of each sex and were weighted according to the size of the population in China in 2005 for each subgroup. The numbers of deaths attributable to smoking in each subgroup were then calculated by multiplying the population attributable risks according to the subgroup-specific rates of death from the study and population size in China in 2005. The total numbers of deaths attributable to smoking in men and women in urban and rural areas were calculated by summing these estimates among appropriate subgroups.
Methods to estimate variances that take into account sample clustering were used in Cox proportional-hazards models.18 All analyses were conducted with the use of SAS statistical software, version 9.1 (SAS Institute). All reported P values are two-sided and have not been adjusted for multiple testing.
Results
Study Subjects
Baseline characteristics of study subjects according to smoking status are presented in Table 1Table 1
Baseline Characteristics of the Subjects, According to Smoking Status.. Both female and male smokers were more likely to consume alcohol and less likely to have a high-school education and to be overweight or obese than their counterparts who had never smoked. On average, male smokers were younger and less likely to be physically inactive or to have hypertension or diabetes than were male nonsmokers. In contrast, female smokers tended to be older and were more likely to be physically inactive and to have hypertension or diabetes than female nonsmokers.During an average of 8.3 years of follow-up (1,115,417 person-years), a total of 17,863 subjects (10,140 men and 7723 women) died. There was a significant, dose–response association between pack-years smoked and death from any cause in both men and women after adjustment for multiple risk factors (P<0.001 for trend) (Table 2Table 2
Relative Risk of Death from Any Cause among Former or Current Smokers, as Compared with Lifelong Nonsmokers, According to the Number of Pack-Years.).The multivariable-adjusted relative risk of death from any cause was significantly higher in smokers than in nonsmokers for men and women in all age groups (Table 3Table 3
Relative Risk, Prevalence of Smoking, Population Attributable Risk, and the Absolute Number of Deaths Attributable to Smoking in China in 2005.). There was some evidence that the relative risk of death from any cause that was associated with tobacco smoking was higher in women than in men (P=0.02 for interaction). However, the prevalence of smoking and the population attributable risk were higher for men than for women, with cigarette smoking accounting for 12.9% of deaths among men and 3.1% of deaths among women. Population attributable risks were similar for subjects in all three age groups (40 to 54, 55 to 64, and ≥65 years), but the number of deaths attributable to smoking increased with age in both men and women because of the higher rates of death in the elderly.It was estimated that a total of 673,000 deaths (95% confidence interval [CI], 564,700 to 781,400) were attributable to smoking in Chinese adults who were 40 years of age or older in 2005: 538,200 (95% CI, 455,800 to 620,600) in men and 134,800 (95% CI, 108,900 to 160,800) in women. The estimated numbers of smoking-related deaths were 327,500 (95% CI, 193,600 to 461,400) in rural areas and 345,500 (95% CI, 296,700 to 394,400) in urban areas (Figure 1Figure 1
Number of Deaths Attributable to Smoking in 2005 in China, According to Sex and Urbanization.).Cause-specific mortality from cancer, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory disease was significantly associated with cigarette smoking (Table 4Table 4
Relative Risk, Population Attributable Risk, and Absolute Number of Deaths Attributable to Smoking in China, According to Sex and Cause of Death.). The estimated numbers of deaths attributable to smoking were as follows: cancer, 268,200 (95% CI, 214,500 to 321,900), including 240,400 (95% CI, 198,800 to 282,000) in men and 27,800 (95% CI, 15,800 to 39,900) in women; cardiovascular disease, 146,200 (95% CI, 79,200 to 213,100), including 126,600 (95% CI, 75,600 to 177,700) in men and 19,600 (95% CI, 3600 to 35,500) in women; and respiratory disease, 66,800 (95% CI, 20,300 to 113,300), including 48,600 (95% CI, 13,700 to 83,500) in men and 18,200 (95% CI, 6600 to 29,900) in women.Lung cancer had the highest population attributable risk associated with cigarette smoking: 50.6% in men and 14.8% in women. The three leading diseases associated with deaths attributable to smoking were lung cancer, stroke, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in men and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and stroke in women. Together, these diseases accounted for approximately 45.1% of deaths attributable to smoking in men and 31.8% of those in women.
Discussion
The results of our study involving a nationally representative sample of Chinese adults indicate that tobacco smoking is a major preventable cause of death in China. On the basis of observed risks, we estimate that tobacco smoking was responsible for about 673,000 premature deaths in Chinese adults who were 40 years of age or older in 2005. The number of deaths attributable to smoking was much greater among men than among women. Lung cancer was the leading cause of deaths attributable to smoking in men, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was the leading cause of such deaths in women.
These findings have important public health implications. Tobacco smoking is highly prevalent and is associated with substantially increased morbidity and mortality as well as health expenditures in China.6,7,19 More troublesome, the prevalence of tobacco smoking has been continuously high in adult men, and the average age of smoking initiation has been dropping during recent decades.20,21 Data from our study and others provide strong evidence that tobacco smoking causes an increased risk of cancer, vascular disease, and respiratory disease in China and elsewhere.5,8-11,22-25 These data are a reminder of the urgent need for continued strengthening of national programs in China on smoking prevention and cessation. These efforts should include the full set of strategies recommended by the 2008 WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic.26
Unlike studies in Western populations, our study showed that the numbers of death from any cause were similar among former and current smokers. Smoking cessation has been relatively uncommon in China, and most smokers quit cigarette smoking because of chronic illness. The median age of smoking cessation was 61.0 years in men and 60.0 years in women among former smokers who died during follow-up. Our study reported a lower relative risk associated with smoking than did studies in Western populations,25 but our results were similar to those of other studies conducted in the Chinese population.5 The magnitude of the relative risks probably reflects the lower numbers of cigarettes smoked in the past and the later age of smoking initiation in subjects currently dying from smoking-related diseases.27 Further investigations are warranted to explain the observed lower relative risk.
Other studies have estimated the smoking-related burden of disease in China. Liu and colleagues compared the smoking habits of 700,000 adults who died from cancer or from respiratory or vascular causes with those of 200,000 adults who died from other causes.5 The underlying cause of death was obtained from local administrative records, and smoking information was recalled by family members. A validation study suggested that local administrative records on the underlying cause of death might not be reliable for some diseases in China.28 In addition, several potential confounding factors (e.g., lifestyle risk factors in the medical history) were not considered in their study. In our study, data on baseline tobacco smoking and other variables were carefully collected with the use of stringent quality-control procedures. In addition, the follow-up rate was high, and almost all deaths were confirmed. Potential confounding factors, including lifestyle risk factors, were considered in the analysis.29 Despite the differences in the two studies, the estimate by Liu et al. that 600,000 deaths were attributable to smoking in 1990 is reasonably close to our estimate of 670,000 in 2005. Neither study estimated the effect of passive smoking on mortality. In addition, exposure to tobacco smoke was assessed by questionnaire in both studies. Although validation of smoking histories against biochemical markers would have been useful, smoking information was collected during an era when smoking was accepted, and a bias to deny or minimize smoking would have been unlikely.
Our study was limited by the availability of hospital records for only 71.0% of subjects who died. The classification of cause of death may be less accurate for subjects without hospital records. In addition, the mortality follow-up was conducted during the 1990s in our study, which reflects the patterns of health care and disease burden at that time. Smoking-related diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, are now more common causes of death in China. Our study might underestimate current deaths attributable to smoking in China. Furthermore, despite the adjustment for several potentially confounding factors in the multivariable analyses, smokers and nonsmokers may still differ with respect to other factors that contribute to disease risk. Finally, we estimated the number of deaths attributable to smoking that would have been prevented if the entire population in China had never been exposed to smoking; we could not estimate the number of deaths that were avoidable by smoking cessation.
Ezzati and Lopez estimated that the leading causes of deaths from smoking worldwide in 2000 were cardiovascular disease (753 thousand in men and 269 thousand in women), cancer (664 thousand in men and 160 thousand in women), and respiratory disease (310 thousand in men and 138 thousand in women).3 On the basis of a case–control study, it has been predicted that smoking will cause about 930,000 adult deaths in India by 2010, mainly from tuberculosis and respiratory disease in men and women and heart disease and cancer in men.22,23 The three leading causes of death attributable to smoking in the United States were cancer, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory disease in men and cardiovascular disease, cancer, and respiratory disease in women.24 Respiratory disease was the leading cause of death attributable to smoking in South Africa.30 Our findings for China are similar with regard to the leading causes of death attributable to smoking: cancer, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory disease.
These new estimates of the number of deaths attributable to smoking speak to the urgency of an agenda for a strong national tobacco-control program in China. Fortunately, there is far more tobacco-control activity than there was previously. The government is moving forward with implementation of tobacco-control measures and has strengthened its tobacco-control capacity within the Chinese Center for Disease Control. However, the government's role in tobacco control is in conflict with the selling of tobacco through its state-owned company and reliance on tobacco revenues.31,32 In addition, mortality and morbidity will not be reduced in the short term without the adoption of measures to increase smoking cessation among the approximately 300 million current smokers in the country. These new estimates on mortality attributable to smoking document the potential human toll of inaction.
Supported by a national grant-in-aid (9750612 N) from the American Heart Association; a grant (U01-HL072507) from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health; a grant (1999-272) from the Ministry of Health, Beijing; and a grant (2006BAI01A01) from the Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing.
No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
This article (10.1056/NEJMsa0802902) was updated on December 1, 2010, at NEJM.org.
Source Information
From the Department of Evidence Based Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute and Fu Wai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, and the National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing (D.G., X.W., J. Huang, M.Z., Ji-chun Chen, X.D.); the Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine (T.N.K., C.-S.C., J. He), and the Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine (Jing Chen, J. He) — both in New Orleans; and the Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore (J.M.S., M.J.K.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Gu at the Department of Evidence Based Medicine, Fu Wai Hospital, 167 Beilishi Rd., Beijing, 100037, China, or at gudf@yahoo.com.
Appendix
The following investigators participated in this study: Steering Committee: J. He (coprincipal investigator), D. Gu (coprincipal investigator), J. Chen, R. Hui, M.J. Klag, L. Kong, S. Tao, J. Wang, P.K. Whelton, X. Wu, and C. Yao. The following institutions and principal investigators participated in the study: United States: Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans: C.-S. Chen, J. Chen, J. He, T.N. Kelly, K. Reynolds, P.K. Whelton, R.P. Wildman; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore: M.J. Klag. China: Fuwai Hospital and Cardiovascular Institute, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing: J. Chen, X. Duan, W. Gan, D. Gu, G. Huang, J. Huang, S. Tao, X. Wu, W. Yang, J. Zhao, M. Zhu; Chinese Ministry of Health, Beijing: L. Kong; Tianjin City Bureau of Public Health, Tianjin: G. Zheng; Tianjin City Center of Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin: G. Song; Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong: X. Liu, J. Mai; Anzhen Hospital, Capital University of Medical Sciences, and Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung, and Blood Vessel Diseases, Beijing: C. Yao; Capital Iron and Steel Company's Hospital, Beijing: X. Yu; Fangshan District Hospital, Beijing: X. Xu; Zhejiang Provincial Center for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Research, Zhejiang: H. Jin, X. Tang; Fujian Provincial People's Hospital, Fujian: X. Pu, L. Yu; Shandong Provincial Academy of Medical Sciences, Shandong: S. Zhang; Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi: L. Zhu; Xi'an Jiaotong University Medical School, Shanxi: J. Mo; Henan Provincial Academy of Medical Sciences, Henan: J. Guo; Tongji Medical College and School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei: Y. Hu, Y. Yu; Sichuan Provincial Center of Disease Control and Prevention, Sichuan: X. Wu; West China College of Medicine, Sichuan University, Sichuan: J. Wang; Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu: H. Shen, C. Yao; Beihua University Medical School, Jilin: L. Xu, G. Zhao; Inner Mongolia Hospital, Inner Mongolia: X. Gao, J. Zhou; First Clinical College of Harbin Medical University, Heilongjiang: Y. Li; Daqing City Center of Disease Control and Prevention, Heilongjiang: Z. Li; Hebei Provincial Academy of Medical Sciences, Hebei: H. Zhang; Zhongshan Hospital and Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Fudan University, Shanghai: X. Pan.
- References
References
1
Lopez AD ,Mathers CD ,Ezzati M ,Jamison DT ,Murray CJ . Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 2006;367:1747-1757
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline2
Ezzati M ,Lopez AD ,Rodgers A ,Vander Hoorn S ,Murray CJ . Selected major risk factors for global and regional burden of disease. Lancet 2002;360:1347-1360
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline3
Ezzati M ,Lopez AD . Estimates of global mortality attributable to smoking in 2000. Lancet 2003;362:847-852
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline4
Ezzati M ,Lopez AD . Measuring the accumulated hazards of smoking: global and regional estimates for 2000. Tob Control 2003;12:79-85
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline5
Liu BQ ,Peto R ,Chen ZM , et al. Emerging tobacco hazards in China: 1. Retrospective proportional mortality study of one million deaths. BMJ 1998;317:1411-1422
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline6
Yang G ,Fan L ,Tan J , et al. Smoking in China: findings of the 1996 national prevalence survey. JAMA 1999;282:1247-1253
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline7
Gu D ,Wu X ,Reynolds K , et al. Cigarette smoking and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in China: the international collaborative study of cardiovascular disease in Asia. Am J Public Health 2004;94:1972-1976
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline8
Niu SR ,Yang GH ,Chen ZM , et al. Emerging tobacco hazards in China: 2. Early mortality results from a prospective study. BMJ 1998;317:1423-1424
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline9
Lam TH ,He Y ,Li LS ,Li LS ,He SF ,Liang BQ . Mortality attributable to cigarette smoking in China. JAMA 1997;278:1505-1508[Erratum, JAMA 1998;279:1350.]
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline10
Chen ZM ,Xu Z ,Collins R . Li WX, Peto R. Early health effects of the emerging tobacco epidemic in China: a 16-year prospective study. JAMA 1997;278:1500-1504[Erratum, JAMA 1999;281:1893.]
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline11
Yuan JM ,Ross RK ,Wang XL ,Gao YT ,Henderson BE ,Yu MC . Morbidity and mortality in relation to cigarette smoking in Shanghai, China: a prospective male cohort study. JAMA 1996;275:1646-1650
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline12
WHO framework convention on tobacco control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003.
13
Wu X ,Duan X ,Gu D ,Hao J ,Tao S ,Fan D . Prevalence of hypertension and its trends in Chinese populations. Int J Cardiol 1995;52:39-44
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline14
EcoSante. Tobacco consumption in grams per capita. (Accessed December 18, 2008, at http://www.ecosante.fr/OCDEENG/813010.html.)
15
Frohlich ED ,Grim C ,Labarthe DR ,Maxwell MH ,Perloff D ,Weidman WH . Recommendations for human blood pressure determination by sphygmomanometers. Circulation 1988;77:501A-14A
Medline16
Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study protocol. Manual 3: surveillance component procedures, version 4.0. October 1997. (Accessed December 18, 2008, at http://www.cscc.unc.edu/aric/visit/Surveillance_Procedures_-_Coronary_Heart_Disease.4_3.pdf.)
17
Kahn HA, Sempos CT. Attributable risk. In: Kahn HA, Sempos CT, eds. Statistical methods in epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989:73-84.
18
Ingram DD, Makuc DM. Statistical issues in analyzing the NHANES I epidemiologic followup Study. Vital and health statistics. Series 2. Data evaluation and methods research. No. 121. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1994:1-30. (DHHS publication no. (PHS) 94-1395.)
19
Sung HY ,Wang L ,Jin S ,Hu TW ,Jiang Y . Economic burden of smoking in China, 2000. Tob Control 2006;15:Suppl 1:i5-i11
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline20
Weng XZ ,Hong ZG ,Chen DY . Smoking prevalence in Chinese aged 15 and above. Chin Med J (Engl) 1987;100:886-892
Web of Science | Medline21
Yang GH ,Ma JM ,Liu N ,Zhou LN . Smoking and passive smoking in Chinese, 2002. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2005;26:77-83
Medline22
Jha P ,Jacob B ,Gajalakshmi V , et al. A nationally representative case-control study of smoking and death in India. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1137-1147
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline23
Gajalakshmi V ,Peto R ,Kanaka TS ,Jha P . Smoking and mortality from tuberculosis and other diseases in India: retrospective study of 43000 adult male deaths and 35000 controls. Lancet 2003;362:507-515
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline24
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. The health consequences of smoking: a report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004.
25
Kenfield SA ,Stampfer MJ ,Rosner BA ,Colditz GA . Smoking and smoking cessation in relation to mortality in women. JAMA 2008;299:2037-2047
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline26
WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2008: the MPOWER package. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008.
27
Yang G-H. Prevalence of smoking in China. In: Hu T-W, ed. Tobacco control policy analysis in China: economics and health. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2008:13-31.
28
Yang G ,Rao C ,Ma J , et al. Validation of verbal autopsy procedures for adult deaths in China. Int J Epidemiol 2006;35:741-748
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline29
Thun MJ ,Apicella LF ,Henley SJ . Smoking vs other risk factors as the cause of smoking-attributable deaths: confounding in the courtroom. JAMA 2000;284:706-712
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline30
Sitas F ,Urban M ,Bradshaw D ,Kielkowski D ,Bah S ,Peto R . Tobacco attributable deaths in South Africa. Tob Control 2004;13:396-399
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline31
Hu T-W, Mao Z, Ong M, et al. China at the crossroads: the economics of tobacco and health. In: Hu T-W, ed. Tobacco control policy analysis in China: economics and health. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2008:305-19.
32
Wright AA ,Katz IT . Tobacco tightrope: balancing disease prevention and economic development in China. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1493-1496
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline
- Citing Articles (51)
Citing Articles
1
S. S. Kim, W. Chen, M. Kolodziej, X. Wang, V. J. Wang, D. Ziedonis. (2012) A Systematic Review of Smoking Cessation Intervention Studies in China. Nicotine & Tobacco Research
CrossRef2
Yubei Huang, Weiqin Li, Li Yang, Yuan Jiang, Yangfeng Wu. (2012) Long-term efficacy and safety of varenicline for smoking cessation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Public Health
CrossRef3
M. P. Wang, S. Y. Ho, W. S. Lo, M. K. Lai, T. H. Lam. (2011) Smoking Is Associated With Poor Self-Rated Health Among Adolescents in Hong Kong. Nicotine & Tobacco Research
CrossRef4
Zhi-Yin Yang, Zhen Yang, Lifang Zhu, Chengxuan Qiu. (2011) Human Behaviors Determine Health: Strategic Thoughts on the Prevention of Chronic Non-communicable Diseases in China. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 18:4, 295-301
CrossRef5
Jie Luo, Shiang J. Leaw, Ying Xu, Di Zheng. (2011) Comparison of cisplatin- and carboplatin-based third-generation chemotherapy in 1,014 Chinese patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. Medical Oncology 28:4, 1418-1424
CrossRef6
Jian-Bing Wang, Ya-Guang Fan, Yong Jiang, Ping Li, Hui-Juan Xiao, Wan-Qing Chen, Wen-Qiang Wei, Qing-hua Zhou, You-Lin Qiao, Paolo Boffetta. (2011) Attributable causes of lung cancer incidence and mortality in China. Thoracic Cancer 2:4, 156-163
CrossRef7
JING ZHANG, JIA-XIAN OU, CHUN-XUE BAI. (2011) Tobacco smoking in China: Prevalence, disease burden, challenges and future strategies. Respirology 16:8, 1165-1172
CrossRef8
Hideki Higashi, Jan J. Barendregt. (2011) Cost-effectiveness of tobacco control policies in Vietnam: the case of personal smoking cessation support. Addictionno-no
CrossRef9
Paul Frey, David D. Waters. (2011) Tobacco smoke and cardiovascular risk. Current Opinion in Cardiology 26:5, 424-428
CrossRef10
Qing Shen, Dennis Cordato, Daniel KY Chan, Jerome Ip, Jude Ng. (2011) Risk factor profile in Chinese-Australian stroke patients living in Sydney. Australasian Journal on Ageing 30:3, 143-147
CrossRef11
Tim Adair, Damian Hoy, Zoe Dettrick, Alan D. Lopez. (2011) Reconstruction of long-term tobacco consumption trends in Australia and their relationship to lung cancer mortality. Cancer Causes & Control 22:7, 1047-1053
CrossRef12
Li, Qiang, , Hsia, Jason, , Yang, Gonghuan, . (2011) Prevalence of Smoking in China in 2010. New England Journal of Medicine 364:25, 2469-2470
Full Text13
Paula H Palmer, Bin Xie, Liming Lee, Chih-Ping Chou, Ping Sun, Bree Hemingway, C. Anderson Johnson. (2011) The China Seven Cities Study (CSCS) consortium: adapting evidence-based prevention science from west to east. Translational Behavioral Medicine 1:2, 283-288
CrossRef14
Chun-Ming Tsai, Joseph Siu-kie Au, Gee-Chen Chang, Ashley Chi-kin Cheng, Caicun Zhou, Yi-long Wu. (2011) Safety and Efficacy of First-Line Bevacizumab with Chemotherapy in Asian Patients with Advanced Nonsquamous NSCLC. Journal of Thoracic Oncology 6:6, 1092-1097
CrossRef15
E. Uretsky. (2011) The risk of success: cultural determinants of chronic disease and sexually transmitted infections among urban Chinese men. Health Promotion International 26:2, 212-219
CrossRef16
Tim Adair, Damian Hoy, Zoe Dettrick, Alan D. Lopez. (2011) Trends in oral, pharyngeal and oesophageal cancer mortality in Australia: the comparative importance of tobacco, alcohol and other risk factors. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 35:3, 212-219
CrossRef17
Hideki Higashi, Khoa D. Truong, Jan J. Barendregt, Phuong K. Nguyen, Mai L. Vuong, Thuy T. Nguyen, Phuong T. Hoang, Angela L. Wallace, Tien V. Tran, Cuong Q. Le, Christopher M. Doran. (2011) Cost Effectiveness of Tobacco Control Policies in Vietnam. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy 9:3, 183-196
CrossRef18
Samuel N. Grief. (2011) Nicotine Dependence: Health Consequences, Smoking Cessation Therapies, and Pharmacotherapy. Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice 38:1, 23-39
CrossRef19
Heidi E.S. Mestl, Rufus Edwards. (2011) Global burden of disease as a result of indoor air pollution in Shaanxi, Hubei and Zhejiang, China. Science of The Total Environment 409:8, 1391-1398
CrossRef20
Wan C Tan. (2011) Trends in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the Asia-Pacific regions. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine 17:2, 56-61
CrossRef21
Gauri Khanna, Gretchen Stevens. (2011) The Global Burden of Tobacco Use: A Review of Methods and Recent Estimates. Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports 5:1, 96-106
CrossRef22
Jie Cao, Chunxue Yang, Jianxin Li, Renjie Chen, Bingheng Chen, Dongfeng Gu, Haidong Kan. (2011) Association between long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution and mortality in China: A cohort study. Journal of Hazardous Materials 186:2-3, 1594-1600
CrossRef23
José R. Banegas, Lucía Díez-Gañán, Beatriz Bañuelos-Marco, Jesús González-Enríquez, Fernando Villar-Álvarez, José M. Martín-Moreno, Rodrigo Córdoba-García, Alfonso Pérez-Trullén, Carlos Jiménez-Ruiz. (2011) Mortalidad atribuible al consumo de tabaco en España en 2006. Medicina Clínica 136:3, 97-102
CrossRef24
Jingfeng Ji, Enchun Pan, Jianxin Li, Jichun Chen, Jie Cao, Dongling Sun, Xiangfeng Lu, Shufeng Chen, Dongfeng Gu, Xiufang Duan, Xigui Wu, Jianfeng Huang. (2011) Classical risk factors of cardiovascular disease among Chinese male steel workers: a prospective cohort study for 20 years. BMC Public Health 11:1, 497
CrossRef25
C. J. Berg, E. J. Nehl, F. Y. Wong, N. He, Z. J. Huang, J. S. Ahluwalia, T. Zheng. (2011) Prevalence and Correlates of Tobacco Use Among a Sample of MSM in Shanghai, China. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 13:1, 22-28
CrossRef26
Jun Lv, Qingmin Liu, Yanjun Ren, Ting Gong, Shengfeng Wang, Liming Li, . (2011) Socio-demographic association of multiple modifiable lifestyle risk factors and their clustering in a representative urban population of adults: a cross-sectional study in Hangzhou, China. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8:1, 40
CrossRef27
Yu Qin, Ming Wu, Xiaoqun Pan, Quanyong Xiang, Jianping Huang, Zenghui Gu, Zumin Shi, Minghao Zhou. (2011) Reactions of Chinese adults to warning labels on cigarette packages: A survey in Jiangsu Province. BMC Public Health 11:1, 133
CrossRef28
Yoshitaka Murakami, Katsuyuki Miura, Tomonori Okamura, Hirotsugu Ueshima. (2011) Population attributable numbers and fractions of deaths due to smoking: A pooled analysis of 180,000 Japanese. Preventive Medicine 52:1, 60-65
CrossRef29
Q. Mao, J.-F. Huang, X. Lu, X. Wu, J. Chen, J. Cao, J. Li, D. Gu. (2010) Heart rate influence on incidence of cardiovascular disease among adults in China. International Journal of Epidemiology 39:6, 1638-1646
CrossRef30
Karl Fagerström, Masakazu Nakamura, Hong-Jun Cho, Shih-Tzu Tsai, Chen Wang, Simon Davies, Wendy Ma, Theodore C. Lee, Cristina Russ. (2010) Varenicline treatment for smoking cessation in Asian populations: a pooled analysis of placebo-controlled trials conducted in six Asian countries. Current Medical Research and Opinion 26:9, 2165-2173
CrossRef31
K-M Lee, R S Chapman, M Shen, J H Lubin, D T Silverman, X He, H D Hosgood, B E Chen, P Rajaraman, N E Caporaso, J F Fraumeni, A Blair, Q Lan. (2010) Differential effects of smoking on lung cancer mortality before and after household stove improvement in Xuanwei, China. British Journal of Cancer 103:5, 727-729
CrossRef32
John J. McNeil, Loretta Piccenna, Lisa L. Ioannides-Demos. (2010) Smoking Cessation–Recent Advances. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 24:4, 359-367
CrossRef33
D. Hu, D. Yu. (2010) Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in Asian women. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 20:6, 394-404
CrossRef34
Maurizio V Infante, Jesper H Pedersen. (2010) Screening for lung cancer: are we there yet?. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine 16:4, 301-306
CrossRef35
Jack V Tu. (2010) Reducing the global burden of stroke: INTERSTROKE. The Lancet 376:9735, 74-75
CrossRef36
Susanne Cupisti, Lothar Häberle, Ralf Dittrich, Patricia G. Oppelt, Christine Reissmann, Desiree Kronawitter, Matthias W. Beckmann, Andreas Mueller. (2010) Smoking is associated with increased free testosterone and fasting insulin levels in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, resulting in aggravated insulin resistance. Fertility and Sterility 94:2, 673-677
CrossRef37
Jian-Bing Wang, Yong Jiang, Wen-Qiang Wei, Gong-Huan Yang, You-Lin Qiao, Paolo Boffetta. (2010) Estimation of cancer incidence and mortality attributable to smoking in China. Cancer Causes & Control 21:6, 959-965
CrossRef38
Kylie J. Lindorff, David J. Hill. (2010) Physicians' role in advancing tobacco control in China. Thoracic Cancer 1:1, 17-22
CrossRef39
JingQi Yan, XiaoJing Di, CaiYi Liu, HuiMin Zhang, XiouQin Huang, JunJing Zhang, Yan Zhao, LongZe Zhang, YanZhong Chang, YongLin Liang, Ran Tao, BaoLu Zhao. (2010) The cessation and detoxification effect of tea filters on cigarette smoke. Science China Life Sciences 53:5, 533-541
CrossRef40
Hongmei Li, Weijun Tong, Aili Wang, Zhe Lin, Yonghong Zhang. (2010) Effects of cigarette smoking on blood pressure stratified by BMI in Mongolian population, China. Blood Pressure 19:2, 92-97
CrossRef41
Yu Shi, Chunhua Yu, Ailun Luo, Yuguang Huang, David O. Warner. (2010) Perioperative Tobacco Interventions by Chinese Anesthesiologists. Anesthesiology 112:2, 338-346
CrossRef42
M. Shan, H.-F. Cheng, L.-z. Song, L. Roberts, L. Green, J. Hacken-Bitar, J. Huh, F. Bakaeen, H. O. Coxson, C. Storness-Bliss, M. Ramchandani, S.-H. Lee, D. B. Corry, F. Kheradmand. (2009) Lung Myeloid Dendritic Cells Coordinately Induce TH1 and TH17 Responses in Human Emphysema. Science Translational Medicine 1:4, 4ra10-4ra10
CrossRef43
M. Gwinn, I. Guessous, M. J. Khoury. (2009) Invited Commentary: Genes, Environment, and Hybrid Vigor. American Journal of Epidemiology 170:6, 703-707
CrossRef44
H Wipfli, J M Samet. (2009) Global Economic and Health Benefits of Tobacco Control: Part 1. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 86:3, 263-271
CrossRef45
Ala Alwan, David R. MacLean. (2009) A review of non-communicable disease in low- and middle-income countries. International Health 1:1, 3-9
CrossRef46
Prabhat Jha. (2009) Avoidable global cancer deaths and total deaths from smoking. Nature Reviews Cancer 9:9, 655-664
CrossRef47
D. Ding, M. F. Hovell, M. Ji, C. R. Hofstetter, P. Zheng, H. Fu, S. C. Hughes. (2009) Employment and social "determinants" of smoking in urbanizing China: A representative survey. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 11:7, 779-784
CrossRef48
Jie Wu. (2009) Understanding of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 30:6, 653-655
CrossRef49
Dahai Yu, Jianfeng Huang, Dongsheng Hu, Jichun Chen, Jie Cao, Jianxin Li, Dongfeng Gu. (2009) Association Between Prehypertension and Clustering of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors Among Chinese Adults. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 53:5, 388-400
CrossRef50
(2009) Mortality Attributable to Smoking in China. New England Journal of Medicine 360:18, 1911-1911
Full Text51
Felix Cheung. (2009) Public health: Smoking statistics. Nature China
CrossRef
- Letters
