Review Article

Genomic Medicine

Alan E. Guttmacher, M.D., Editor, Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D., Editor

Inheritance and Drug Response

Richard Weinshilboum, M.D.

N Engl J Med 2003; 348:529-537February 6, 2003

Article

The promise of pharmacogenetics, the study of the role of inheritance in the individual variation in drug response, lies in its potential to identify the right drug and dose for each patient. Even though individual differences in drug response can result from the effects of age, sex, disease, or drug interactions, genetic factors also influence both the efficacy of a drug and the likelihood of an adverse reaction.1-3 This article briefly reviews concepts that underlie the emerging fields of pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics, with an emphasis on the pharmacogenetics of drug metabolism. Although only a few examples will be provided to illustrate concepts and to demonstrate the potential contribution of pharmacogenetics to medical practice, it is now clear that virtually every pathway of drug metabolism will eventually be found to have genetic variation. The accompanying article by Evans and McLeod4 expands on many of the themes introduced here.

Once a drug is administered, it is absorbed and distributed to its site of action, where it interacts with targets (such as receptors and enzymes), undergoes metabolism, and is then excreted.5,6 Each of these processes could potentially involve clinically significant genetic variation. However, pharmacogenetics originated as a result of the observation that there are clinically important inherited variations in drug metabolism. Therefore, this article — and the examples highlighted — focuses on the pharmacogenetics of drug metabolism. However, similar principles apply to clinically significant inherited variation in the transport and distribution of drugs and their interaction with their therapeutic targets. The underlying message is that inherited variations in drug effect are common and that some tests that incorporate pharmacogenetics into clinical practice are now available, with many more to follow.

The concept of pharmacogenetics originated from the clinical observation that there were patients with very high or very low plasma or urinary drug concentrations, followed by the realization that the biochemical traits leading to this variation were inherited. Only later were the drug-metabolizing enzymes identified, and this discovery was followed by the identification of the genes that encoded the proteins and the DNA-sequence variation within the genes that was associated with the inherited trait. Most of the pharmacogenetic traits that were first identified were monogenic — that is, they involved only a single gene — and most were due to genetic polymorphisms; in other words, the allele or alleles responsible for the variation were relatively common. Although drug effect is a complex phenotype that depends on many factors, early and often dramatic examples involving succinylcholine and isoniazid facilitated acceptance of the fact that inheritance can have an important influence on the effect of a drug. Today there is a systematic search to identify functionally significant variations in DNA sequences in genes that influence the effects of various drugs.4

Pharmacogenetics of Drug Metabolism

Metabolism usually converts drugs to metabolites that are more water soluble and thus more easily excreted.5 It can also convert prodrugs into therapeutically active compounds, and it may even result in the formation of toxic metabolites. Pharmacologists classify pathways of drug metabolism as either phase I reactions (i.e., oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis) or phase II, conjugation reactions (e.g., acetylation, glucuronidation, sulfation, and methylation).5 The names used to refer to these pathways for drug metabolism are purely historical, so phase II reactions can precede phase I reactions and often occur without prior oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis. However, both types of reaction most often convert relatively lipid-soluble drugs into relatively more water-soluble metabolites (Figure 1Figure 1The Effect of Drug Metabolism on Excretion.).

The finding, approximately 40 years ago, that an impairment in a phase I reaction — hydrolysis of the muscle relaxant succinylcholine by butyrylcholinesterase (pseudocholinesterase) — was inherited served as an early stimulus for the development of pharmacogenetics.7 Approximately 1 in 3500 white subjects is homozygous for a gene encoding an atypical form of butyrylcholinesterase8 and is relatively unable to hydrolyze succinylcholine, thus prolonging the drug-induced muscle paralysis and consequent apnea.9 At almost the same time, it was observed that a common genetic variation in a phase II pathway of drug metabolism — N-acetylation — could result in striking differences in the half-life and plasma concentrations of drugs metabolized by N-acetyltransferase. Such drugs included the antituberculosis agent isoniazid,10 the antihypertensive agent hydralazine,11 and the antiarrhythmic drug procainamide,12 and this variation had clinical consequences in all cases.13 The bimodal distribution of plasma isoniazid concentrations in subjects with genetically determined fast or slow rates of acetylation in one of those early studies10 strikingly illustrates the consequences of inherited variations in this pathway for drug metabolism (Figure 2Figure 2Pharmacogenetics of Acetylation.). These early examples of the potential influence of inheritance on the effect of a drug set the stage for subsequent studies of genetic variation in other pathways of drug biotransformation.

Pharmacogenetics of Phase I Drug Metabolism

The cytochrome P-450 enzymes, a superfamily of microsomal drug-metabolizing enzymes, are the most important of the enzymes that catalyze phase I drug metabolism.5 One member of this family, cytochrome P-450 2D6 (CYP2D6), represents one of the most intensively studied and best understood examples of pharmacogenetic variation in drug metabolism. The CYP2D6 genetic polymorphism was originally discovered as a result of striking differences in the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic effects of drugs metabolized by this enzyme — drugs as diverse as codeine, dextromethorphan, metoprolol, and nortriptyline, to mention only a few of the scores of agents metabolized by this enzyme.14

Approximately 5 to 10 percent of white subjects were found to have a relative deficiency in their ability to oxidize the antihypertensive drug debrisoquin.15 They also had an impaired ability to metabolize the antiarrhythmic and oxytocic drug sparteine.16 Subjects with poor metabolism of these two drugs had lower urinary concentrations of metabolites and higher plasma concentrations of the parent drug than did subjects with extensive metabolism. Furthermore, the drugs had an exaggerated effect in these subjects, and family studies demonstrated that poor oxidation of debrisoquin and sparteine was inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.15,16 That is, subjects with poor metabolism had inherited two copies of a gene or genes that encoded either an enzyme with decreased CYP2D6 activity or one with no activity.

A plot of the ratio of urinary debrisoquin to 4-hydroxydebrisoquin — a so-called metabolic ratio — is shown in Figure 3Figure 3Pharmacogenetics of CYP2D6..17 The higher the metabolic ratio, the less metabolite was excreted. Therefore, subjects with poor metabolism are shown, counterintuitively, at the far right of the graph, with a few subjects at the far left of the frequency distribution who are now classified as having ultrarapid metabolism.18 As described subsequently, such subjects may have multiple copies of the gene for CYP2D6.18 Therefore, debrisoquin and sparteine represented “probe drugs” — compounds that could be used to classify subjects as having either poor metabolism or extensive metabolism. That strategy, the administration of a probe compound metabolized by a genetically polymorphic enzyme, became a standard technique used in many pharmacogenetic studies. Unfortunately, even though it was useful for research purposes, the approach was not easily adapted for the routine clinical laboratory. Therefore, the application of molecular genetic techniques to pharmacogenetics not only has made it possible to determine underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for genetic polymorphisms, but also has created the possibility of high-throughput clinical tests that can be performed with DNA isolated from a blood sample, an approach that is being adapted for routine diagnostic use in clinical laboratories.

Application of molecular genetic techniques resulted in the cloning of a complementary DNA (cDNA) and the gene encoding CYP2D6.19,20 Those advances, in turn, made it possible to characterize a series of genetic variants responsible for low levels of CYP2D6 activity or no activity, ranging from single-nucleotide polymorphisms that altered the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein to single-nucleotide polymorphisms that altered RNA splicing or even deletions of the CYP2D6 gene.21 More than 75 CYP2D6 alleles have now been described (descriptions are available at http://www.imm.ki.se/cypalleles). In addition, some subjects with ultrarapid metabolism have been shown to have multiple copies of the CYP2D6 gene.18 Such subjects can have an inadequate therapeutic response to standard doses of the drugs metabolized by CYP2D6. Although the occurrence of multiple copies of the CYP2D6 gene is relatively infrequent among northern Europeans, in East African populations, the allele frequency can be as high as 29 percent.22 The effect of the number of copies of the CYP2D6 gene — ranging from 0 to 13 — on the pharmacokinetics of the antidepressant drug nortriptyline is shown in Figure 4Figure 4Pharmacogenetics of Nortriptyline..23 There could hardly be a more striking illustration of how genetics influences the metabolism of a drug.

The CYP2D6 polymorphism represents an excellent example of both the potential clinical implications of pharmacogenetics and the process by which pharmacogenetic research led from the phenotype to an understanding of molecular mechanisms at the level of the genotype. Similar approaches were subsequently applied to other cytochrome P-450 isoforms, including 2C9, which metabolizes warfarin, losartan, and phenytoin; 2C19, which metabolizes omeprazole; and 3A5, which metabolizes a very large number of drugs.24-26 We now know that many other phase I drug-metabolizing enzymes display genetic variation that can influence a person's response to a drug. Table 1Table 1Pharmacogenetics of Phase I Drug Metabolism. lists selected examples of clinically relevant pharmacogenetic variations involving phase I drug-metabolizing enzymes. In many cases, we also understand the molecular basis of inherited variation in the drug-metabolizing enzymes. For example, in the atypical butyrylcholinesterase variant responsible for striking decreases in the ability to catalyze the hydrolysis of succinylcholine, guanine is substituted for adenine at position 209 in the open reading frame of the gene, resulting in a change from aspartic acid to glycine at position 70 in the encoded protein.42 A series of other variant alleles for butyrylcholinesterase that result in decreased enzyme activity have also been described.41

Another example of the pharmacogenetics of phase I drug metabolism involves metabolism of the antineoplastic agent fluorouracil. In the mid-1980s, fatal central nervous system toxicity developed in several patients after treatment with standard doses of fluorouracil.39,40 The patients were shown to have an inherited deficiency of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, an enzyme that metabolizes fluorouracil and endogenous pyrimidines. Subsequently, several variant alleles for the gene encoding dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase were described that placed patients at risk for toxic effects when they were exposed to standard doses of fluorouracil.43 The pharmacogenetics of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase and its effect on the metabolism of fluorouracil, as well as the pharmacogenetics of thiopurine drugs discussed below, serve to illustrate another general principle: pharmacogenetic variation in the response to drugs has been recognized most often for drugs with narrow therapeutic indexes — drugs for which differences between the toxic and therapeutic doses are relatively small. However, the same general principles would be expected to apply to all therapeutic agents, and the same research strategies that were used to identify common, clinically significant genetic variations in phase I pathways of drug metabolism have also been applied — with equal success — to reactions involving phase II drug metabolism.

Pharmacogenetics of Phase II Drug Metabolism

The N-acetylation of isoniazid (Figure 2) was an early example of inherited variation in phase II drug metabolism. Molecular cloning studies subsequently demonstrated that there are two N-acetyltransferase (NAT) genes in humans, NAT1 and NAT2.44 The common genetic polymorphism responsible for the pharmacogenetic variation in isoniazid metabolism illustrated in Figure 2 involved the NAT2 gene. That polymorphism, like those in the genes for many other drug-metabolizing enzymes, shows striking ethnic variation.45 As a result, most East Asian subjects are rapid acetylators of isoniazid and other drugs metabolized by N-acetyltransferase 2.46 Although the NAT2 genetic polymorphism was one of the earliest examples discovered of a pharmacogenetic variant in a phase II drug-metabolizing enzyme, it was a common genetic polymorphism involving another conjugating (i.e., phase II) enzyme that became one of the earliest clinically accepted pharmacogenetic tests.

The thiopurine drugs mercaptopurine and azathioprine — a prodrug that is converted to mercaptopurine in vivo — are purine antimetabolites used clinically as immunosuppressants and to treat neoplasias, such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia of childhood.47 Thiopurines are metabolized in part by S-methylation catalyzed by the enzyme thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT).48,49 Approximately 20 years ago it was reported that white populations can be separated into three groups on the basis of the level of TPMT activity in their red cells and other tissues and that the level of activity was inherited in an autosomal codominant fashion (Figure 5AFigure 5Pharmacogenetics of Thiopurine S-Methyltransferase (TPMT) (Panel A) and the TPMT Gene (Panel B).).50,51 Subsequently, it was shown that when persons who were homozygous for low levels of TPMT activity or for no activity (TPMT^L/TPMT^L ) (Figure 5A) received standard doses of thiopurines, they had greatly elevated concentrations of active metabolites, 6-thioguanine nucleotides, as well as a greatly increased risk of life-threatening, drug-induced myelosuppression.52 As a result, the phenotypic test for the level of TPMT activity in red cells and, subsequently, DNA-based tests were among the first pharmacogenetic tests to be used in clinical practice. They are an example of the individualization of therapy on the basis of pharmacogenetic data. Patients with inherited low levels of TPMT activity can be treated with thiopurine drugs but only at greatly reduced doses, if drug-induced toxicity is to be avoided.51 There is also evidence that in patients with very high levels of activity, the efficacy of thiopurine drugs is decreased,53 presumably because the drugs are rapidly metabolized.

It is interesting to contrast the test used to determine the TPMT phenotype with that used originally to classify subjects as having either poor or extensive metabolism of CYP2D6. In the case of TPMT, a blood sample could be obtained and the enzymatic activity measured directly, whereas for CYP2D6 a probe drug had to be administered and a urine sample collected (Figure 3). The fact that TPMT is expressed in an easily accessible cell — the red cell — facilitated the introduction of this pharmacogenetic test into clinical use. The availability of DNA-based tests means that the clinical application of pharmacogenetics could be greatly accelerated for a large number of genes that encode proteins important in drug response.

The TPMT gene has been cloned,54 and the most common variant allele responsible for low levels of activity among white populations encodes a protein with two alterations in the amino acid sequence as a result of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (Figure 5B).54,55 These sequence changes result in a striking reduction in the quantity of TPMT, 54 probably because the variant protein is degraded rapidly.56 A series of less frequent TPMT variant alleles have also been described.51 Finally, there are large differences in the types and frequencies of TPMT alleles among ethnic groups. For example, TPMT*3A, the most common allele responsible for very low levels of enzyme activity in whites, with a frequency of approximately 4 percent (Figure 5B), has not been observed in China, Korea, or Japan.57 Other examples of pharmacogenetic variation involving phase II pathways of drug metabolism are listed in Table 2Table 2Pharmacogenetics of Phase II Drug Metabolism..

Recurring themes in pharmacogenetics include the presence of a few relatively common variant alleles of genes encoding proteins important in drug response, a larger number of much less frequent variant alleles, and striking differences in the types and frequencies of alleles among different populations and ethnic groups. These generalizations, based primarily on studies of drug metabolism, are now being extended to include common genetic variations in other proteins that might alter the effects of drug transporters or targets.

Most drugs are metabolized by several different enzymes, can be transported by other types of proteins, and ultimately interact with one or more targets. If several steps in this type of pathway were to display genetic variation — that is, if the effects were polygenic — clear multimodal frequency distributions like those shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 would quickly be replaced by multiple overlapping distributions. Therefore, even if inheritance influenced the effect of a drug, the relatively simple, one-to-one relation observed for CYP2D6 and TPMT would not be obvious. Perhaps partly as a result of that fact, there are still relatively few examples of clinical tests based on pharmacogenetics. An additional factor responsible for the relatively slow translation of pharmacogenetic approaches into clinical practice — as mentioned previously — has been the frequent requirement for the administration of a probe drug in the diagnosis of many pharmacogenetic traits. DNA-based assays make it possible to obtain pharmacogenetic information on a large number of genes encoding relevant proteins. The range of functionally significant variations in DNA sequences in genes that influence the response to drugs is wide and includes single-nucleotide polymorphisms, small insertions and deletions, variable-number tandem repeats, gene deletions, and gene duplications. And although DNA-based tests can be used to detect sequence variations, the results of such tests will not necessarily account for all possible phenotypic variations. What they can potentially do quickly is make available large quantities of data on many genes that might contribute to variations in drug response.

From Pharmacogenetics to Pharmacogenomics

The convergence of pharmacogenetics and rapid advances in human genomics has resulted in pharmacogenomics, a term used here to mean the influence of DNA-sequence variation on the effect of a drug. With the completion of the Human Genome Project66,67 and the ongoing annotation of its data, the time is rapidly approaching when the sequences of virtually all genes encoding enzymes that catalyze phase I and II drug metabolism will be known. The same will be true for genes that encode drug transporters, drug receptors, and other drug targets. As a result, the traditional phenotype-to-genotype pharmacogenetic-research paradigm described at the beginning of this article is reversing direction to create a complementary genotype-to-phenotype flow of information.

Conclusions

The convergence of advances in pharmacogenetics and human genomics means that physicians can now individualize therapy in the case of a few drugs. As our knowledge of genetic variations in proteins involved in the uptake, distribution, metabolism, and action of various drugs improves, our ability to test for that variation and, as a result, to select the best drug at the optimal dose for each patient should also increase.

Supported in part by grants (RO1 GM28157, RO1 GM35720, and UO1 GM61388) from the National Institutes of Health.

Dr. Weinshilboum has reported providing consulting services to Abbott Laboratories, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, and Johnson and Johnson; all fees for these services are paid to the Mayo Foundation.

I am indebted to Ms. Luanne Wussow for her assistance with the preparation of the manuscript.

Source Information

From the Departments of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Medicine, Mayo Medical School, Mayo Clinic, and Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn.

Address reprint requests to Dr. Weinshilboum at the Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Medical School–Mayo Clinic–Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN 55905, or at weinshilboum.richard@mayo.edu.

References

References

1. 1

   Kalow W. Pharmacogenetics: heredity and the response to drugs. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1962.
   

2. 2

   Price Evans DA. Genetic factors in drug therapy: clinical and molecular pharmacogenetics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
   

3. 3

   Weber WW. Pharmacogenetics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
   

4. 4

   Evans WE, McLeod HL. Pharmacogenomics -- drug disposition, drug targets, and side effects. N Engl J Med 2003;348:538-549
   Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

5. 5

   Wilkinson GR. Pharmacokinetics: the dynamics of drug absorption, distribution, and elimination. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Gilman AG, eds. Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001:3-29.
   

6. 6

   Ross EM, Kenakin TP. Pharmacodynamics: mechanisms of drug action and the relationship between drug concentration and effect. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Gilman AG, eds. Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001:31-43.
   

7. 7

   Kalow W. The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine 1990 Bernard B. Brodie Lecture: pharmacogenetics: past and future. Life Sci 1990;47:1385-1397
   CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

8. 8

   Kalow W, Gunn DR. Some statistical data on atypical cholinesterase of human serum. Ann Hum Genet 1959;23:239-250
   CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

9. 9

   Kalow W, Gunn DR. The relation between dose of succinylcholine and duration of apnea in man. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1957;120:203-214
   Web of Science | Medline

10. 10

    Price Evans DA, Manley KA, McKusick VA. Genetic control of isoniazid metabolism in man. BMJ 1960;2:485-491
    CrossRef | Web of Science

11. 11

    Timbrell JA, Harland SJ, Facchini V. Polymorphic acetylation of hydralazine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980;28:350-355
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

12. 12

    Reidenberg MM, Drayer DE, Levy M, Warner H. Polymorphic acetylation of procainamide in man. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975;17:722-730
    Web of Science | Medline

13. 13

    Drayer DE, Reidenberg MM. Clinical consequences of polymorphic acetylation of basic drugs. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977;22:251-258
    Web of Science | Medline

14. 14

    Kroemer HK, Eichelbaum M. “It's the genes, stupid“: molecular bases and clinical consequences of genetic cytochrome P450 2D6 polymorphism. Life Sci 1995;56:2285-2298
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

15. 15

    Mahgoub A, Idle JR, Dring LG, Lancaster R, Smith RL. Polymorphic hydroxylation of debrisoquine in man. Lancet 1977;2:584-586
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

16. 16

    Eichelbaum M, Spannbrucker N, Steincke B, Dengler HJ. Defective N-oxidation of sparteine in man: a new pharmacogenetic defect. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1979;16:183-187
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

17. 17

    Bertilsson L, Lou YQ, Du YL, et al. Pronounced differences between native Chinese and Swedish populations in the polymorphic hydroxylations of debrisoquin and S-mephenytoin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992;51:388-397[Erratum, Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994;55:648.]
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

18. 18

    Johansson I, Lundqvist E, Bertilsson L, Dahl ML, Sjoqvist F, Ingelman-Sundberg M. Inherited amplification of an active gene in the cytochrome P450 CYP2D locus as a cause of ultrarapid metabolism of debrisoquine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993;90:11825-11829
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

19. 19

    Gonzalez FJ, Vilbois F, Hardwick JP, et al. Human debrisoquine 4-hydroxylase (P450IID1): cDNA and deduced amino acid sequence and assignment of the CYP2D locus of chromosome 22. Genomics 1988;2:174-179
    CrossRef | Medline

20. 20

    Kimura S, Umeno M, Skoda R, Meyer UA, Gonzalez FJ. The human debrisoquine 4-hydroxylase (CYP2D) locus: sequence and identification of the polymorphic CYP2D6 gene, a related gene and a pseudogene. Am J Hum Genet 1989;45:889-904
    Web of Science | Medline

21. 21

    Ingelman-Sundberg M, Evans WE. Unravelling the functional genomics of the human CYP2D6 gene locus. Pharmacogenetics 2001;11:553-554
    CrossRef | Medline

22. 22

    Aklillu E, Persson I, Bertilsson L, Johansson I, Rodrigues F, Ingelman-Sundberg M. Frequent distribution of ultrarapid metabolizers of debrisoquine in an Ethiopian population carrying duplicated and multiduplicated functional CYP2D6 alleles. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1996;278:441-446
    Web of Science | Medline

23. 23

    Dalen P, Dahl ML, Ruiz MLB, Nordin J, Bertilsson L. 10-Hydroxylation of nortriptyline in white persons with 0, 1, 2, 3, and 13 functional CYP2D6 genes. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998;63:444-452
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

24. 24

    Stubbins MJ, Harris LW, Smith G, Tarbit MH, Wolf CR. Genetic analysis of the human cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 locus. Pharmacogenetics 1996;6:429-439
    CrossRef | Medline

25. 25

    de Morais SMF, Wilkinson GR, Blaisdell J, Nakamura K, Meyer UA, Goldstein JA. The major genetic defect responsible for the polymorphism of S-mephenytoin metabolism in humans. J Biol Chem 1994;269:15419-15422
    Web of Science | Medline

26. 26

    Kuehl P, Zhang J, Lin Y, et al. Sequence diversity in CYP3A promoters and characterization of the genetic basis of polymorphic CYP3A5 expression. Nat Genet 2001;27:383-391
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

27. 27

    Mortimer O, Persson K, Ladona MG, et al. Polymorphic formation of morphine from codeine in poor and extensive metabolizers of dextromethorphan: relationship to the presence of immunoidentified cytochrome P-450IID1. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990;47:27-35
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

28. 28

    Sindrup SH, Brosen K. The pharmacogenetics of codeine hypoalgesia. Pharmacogenetics 1995;5:335-346
    CrossRef | Medline

29. 29

    Aithal GP, Day CP, Kesteven PJL, Daly AK. Association of polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 with warfarin dose requirement and risk of bleeding complications. Lancet 1999;353:717-719
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

30. 30

    Loebstein R, Yonath H, Peleg D, et al. Interindividual variability in sensitivity to warfarin -- nature or nurture? Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001;70:159-164
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

31. 31

    van der Weide J, Steijns LSW, van Weelden MJM, de Haan K. The effect of genetic polymorphism of cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 on phenytoin dose requirement. Pharmacogenetics 2001;11:287-291
    CrossRef | Medline

32. 32

    Brandolese R, Scordo MG, Spina E, Gusella M, Padrini R. Severe phenytoin in-toxication in a subject homozygous for CYP2C9*3. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001;70:391-394
    Web of Science | Medline

33. 33

    Nakamura K, Goto F, Ray WA, et al. Interethnic differences in genetic polymorphism of debrisoquin and mephenytoin hydroxylation between Japanese and Caucasian populations. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985;38:402-408
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

34. 34

    Balian J, Sukhova N, Harris JW, et al. The hydroxylation of omeprazole correlates with S-mephenytoin metabolism: a population study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995;57:662-669
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

35. 35

    Tybring G, Bottiger Y, Widen J, Bertilsson L. Enantioselective hydroxylation of omeprazole catalyzed by CYP2C19 in Swedish white subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997;62:129-137
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

36. 36

    Furuta T, Ohashi K, Kamata T, et al. Effect of genetic differences in omeprazole metabolism on cure rate for Helicobacter pylori infection and peptic ulcer. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:1027-1030
    Web of Science | Medline

37. 37

    Tanigawara Y, Aoyama N, Kita T, et al. CYP2C19 genotype-related efficacy of omeprazole for the treatment of infection caused by Helicobacter pylori. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999;66:528-534
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

38. 38

    Raida M, Schwabe W, Hausler P, et al. Prevalence of a common point mutation in the dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) gene within the 5'-splice donor site of intron 14 in patients with severe 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-related toxicity compared with controls. Clin Cancer Res 2001;7:2832-2839
    Web of Science | Medline

39. 39

    Tuchman M, Stoeckeler JS, Kiang DT, O'Dea RF, Ramnaraine ML, Mirkin BL. Familial pyrimidinemia and pyrimidinurea associated with severe fluorouracil toxicity. N Engl J Med 1985;313:245-249
    Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

40. 40

    Diasio RB, Beavers TL, Carpenter JT. Familial deficiency of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase: biochemical basis for familial pyrimidinemia and severe 5-fluorouracil-induced toxicity. J Clin Invest 1988;81:47-51
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

41. 41

    Lockridge O. Genetic variants of human butyrylcholinesterase influence the metabolism of the muscle relaxant succinylcholine. In: Kalow W, ed. Pharmacogenetics of drug metabolism. International encyclopedia of pharmacology and therapeutics. New York: Pergamon Press, 1992:15-50.
    

42. 42

    McGuire MC, Nogueira CP, Bartels CF, et al. Identification of the structural mutation responsible for the dibucaine-resistant (atypical) variant form of human serum cholinesterase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1989;86:953-957
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

43. 43

    McLeod HL, Collie-Duguid ESR, Vreken P, et al. Nomenclature for human DPYD alleles. Pharmacogenetics 1998;8:455-459
    CrossRef | Medline

44. 44

    Blum M, Grant DM, McBride W, Heim M, Meyer UA. Human arylamine N-acetyltransferase genes: isolation, chromosomal localization, and functional expression. DNA Cell Biol 1990;9:193-203
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

45. 45

    Lin HJ, Han C-Y, Lin BK, Hardy S. Slow acetylator mutations in the human polymorphic N-acetyltransferase gene in 786 Asians, blacks, Hispanics, and whites: application to metabolic epidemiology. Am J Hum Genet 1993;52:827-834
    Web of Science | Medline

46. 46

    Price Evans DA. N-acetyltransferase in pharmacogenetics of drug metabolism. In: Kalow W, ed. Pharmacogenetics of drug metabolism. International encyclopedia of pharmacology and therapeutics. New York: Pergamon Press, 1992:43:95-178.
    

47. 47

    Lennard L. The clinical pharmacology of 6-mercaptopurine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992;43:329-339
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

48. 48

    Remy CN. Metabolism of thiopyrimidines and thiopurines: S-methylation with S-adenosylmethionine transmethylase and catabolism in mammalian tissues. J Biol Chem 1963;238:1078-1084
    Web of Science | Medline

49. 49

    Woodson LC, Weinshilboum RM. Human kidney thiopurine methyltransferase: purification and biochemical properties. Biochem Pharmacol 1983;32:819-826
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

50. 50

    Weinshilboum RM, Sladek SL. Mercaptopurine pharmacogenetics: monogenic inheritance of erythrocyte thiopurine methyltransferase activity. Am J Hum Genet 1980;32:651-662
    Web of Science | Medline

51. 51

    Weinshilboum RM, Otterness DM, Szumlanski CL. Methylation pharmacogenetics: catechol O-methyltransferase, thiopurine methyltransferase, and histamine N-methyltransferase. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1999;39:19-52
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

52. 52

    Lennard L, Van Loon JA, Weinshilboum RM. Pharmacogenetics of acute azathioprine toxicity: relationship to thiopurine methyltransferase genetic polymorphism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989;46:149-154
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

53. 53

    Lennard L, Lilleyman JS, Van Loon J, Weinshilboum RM. Genetic variation in response to 6-mercaptopurine for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Lancet 1990;336:225-229
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

54. 54

    Szumlanski C, Otterness D, Her C, et al. Thiopurine methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: human gene cloning and characterization of a common polymorphism. DNA Cell Biol 1996;15:17-30
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

55. 55

    Tai H-L, Krynetski EY, Yates CR, et al. Thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency: two nucleotide transitions define the most prevalent mutant allele associated with loss of catalytic activity in Caucasians. Am J Hum Genet 1996;58:694-702
    Web of Science | Medline

56. 56

    Tai H-L, Krynetski EY, Schuetz EG, Yanishevski Y, Evans WE. Enhanced proteolysis of thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) encoded by mutant alleles in humans (TPMT*3A, TPMT*2): mechanisms for the genetic polymorphism of TPMT activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997;94:6444-6449
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

57. 57

    Collie-Duguid ESR, Pritchard SC, Powrie RH, et al. The frequency and distribution of thiopurine methyltransferase alleles in Caucasian and Asian populations. Pharmacogenetics 1999;9:37-42
    CrossRef | Medline

58. 58

    Dufour AP, Knight RA, Harris HW. Genetics of isoniazid metabolism in Caucasian, Negro, and Japanese populations. Science 1964;145:391-391
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

59. 59

    Lampe JW, Bigler J, Horner NK, Potter JD. UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A1*28 and UGT1A6*2) polymorphisms in Caucasians and Asians: relationships to serum bilirubin concentrations. Pharmacogenetics 1999;9:341-349
    CrossRef | Medline

60. 60

    Hall D, Ybazeta G, Destro-Bisol G, Petzl-Erler ML, Di Rienzo A. Variability at the uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 promoter in human populations and primates. Pharmacogenetics 1999;9:591-599
    CrossRef | Medline

61. 61

    Iyer L, Hall D, Das S, et al. Phenotype-genotype correlation of in vitro SN-38 (active metabolite of irinotecan) and bilirubin glucuronidation in human liver tissue with UGT1A1 promoter polymorphism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999;65:576-582
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

62. 62

    Bosma PJ, Chowdhury JR, Bakker C, et al. The genetic basis of the reduced expression of bilirubin UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1 in Gilbert's syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1171-1175
    Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

63. 63

    Iyer L, Das S, Janisch L, et al. UGT1A1*28 polymorphism as a determinant of irinotecan disposition and toxicity. Pharmacogenetics J 2002;2:43-47
    CrossRef | Medline

64. 64

    Weinshilboum RM, Raymond FA. Inheritance of low erythrocyte catechol-o-methyltransferase activity in man. Am J Hum Genet 1977;29:125-135
    Web of Science | Medline

65. 65

    Reilly DK, Rivera-Calimlim L, Van Dyke D. Catechol-O-methyltransferase activity: a determinant of levodopa response. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980;28:278-286
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

66. 66

    Lander ES, Linton LM, Birren B, et al. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 2001;409:860-921[Erratum, Nature 2001;411:720, 412:565.]
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

67. 67

    Venter JC, Adams MD, Myers EW, et al. The sequence of the human genome. Science 2001;291:1304-1351[Erratum, Science 2001;292:1838.]
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

Citing Articles (329)

Citing Articles

1. 1

   E J Stanek, C L Sanders, K A Johansen Taber, M Khalid, A Patel, R R Verbrugge, B C Agatep, R E Aubert, R S Epstein, F W Frueh. (2012) Adoption of Pharmacogenomic Testing by US Physicians: Results of a Nationwide Survey. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics
   CrossRef

2. 2

   Ray Greek, Andre Menache, Mark J Rice. (2012) Animal models in an age of personalized medicine. Personalized Medicine 9:1, 47-64
   CrossRef

3. 3

   James H. Lewis, David E. Kleiner. 2012. Hepatic injury due to drugs, herbal compounds, chemicals and toxins. , 645-760.
   CrossRef

4. 4

   John W. Devlin, Russel J. Roberts. (2011) Pharmacology of Commonly Used Analgesics and Sedatives in the ICU: Benzodiazepines, Propofol, and Opioids. Anesthesiology Clinics 29:4, 567-585
   CrossRef

5. 5

   K.-K. Wei, L.-R. Zhang, Y. Zhang, X.-J. Hu. (2011) Interactions between CYP7A1 A-204C and ABCG8 C1199A polymorphisms on lipid lowering with atorvastatin. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 36:6, 725-733
   CrossRef

6. 6

   Haiyan Li, Kathleen Butler, Li Yang, Zhenghua Yang, Renli Teng. (2011) Pharmacokinetics and Tolerability of Single and Multiple Doses of Ticagrelor in Healthy Chinese Subjects. Clinical Drug Investigation1
   CrossRef

7. 7

   Martin Schwaiblmair, Werner Behr, Wolfgang Foerg, Thomas Berghaus. (2011) Cytochrome P450 polymorphisms and drug-induced interstitial lung disease. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology1-14
   CrossRef

8. 8

   Alice Callard, William Newman, Katherine Payne. (2011) Delivering a Pharmacogenetic Service: Is There a Role for Genetic Counselors?. Journal of Genetic Counseling
   CrossRef

9. 9

   Hee-Doo Yoo, Yong-Bok Lee. (2011) Interplay of pharmacogenetic variations in ABCB1 transporters and cytochrome P450 enzymes. Archives of Pharmacal Research 34:11, 1817-1828
   CrossRef

10. 10

    Rongling Wu, Chunfa Tong, Zhong Wang, David Mauger, Kelan Tantisira, Stanley J. Szefler, Vernon M. Chinchilli, Elliot Israel. (2011) A conceptual framework for pharmacodynamic genome-wide association studies in pharmacogenomics. Drug Discovery Today 16:19-20, 884-890
    CrossRef

11. 11

    Seth Michelson. 2011. Lead Identification and Optimization. , 135-145.
    CrossRef

12. 12

    Yao Li, Wei Hou, Wei Zhao, Kwangmi Ahn, Rongling Wu. 2011. Functional Mapping for Predicting Drug Response and Enabling Personalized Medicine. , 303-321.
    CrossRef

13. 13

    Marzia Del Re, Angela Michelucci, Paolo Simi, Romano Danesi. (2011) Pharmacogenetics of anti-estrogen treatment of breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Reviews
    CrossRef

14. 14

    Joan Landino, Jane Buckley, John M. Roy, David Villagra, Krystyna Gorowski, Mohan Kocherla, Andreas Windemuth, Gualberto Ruaño. (2011) Guidance of pharmacotherapy in a complex psychiatric case by CYP450 DNA typing. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners 23:9, 459-463
    CrossRef

15. 15

    Jaime A. Yáñez, Dion R. Brocks, Laird M. Forrest, Neal M. Davies. 2011. Pharmacokinetic Behaviors of Orally Administered Drugs. , 183-219.
    CrossRef

16. 16

    M Onizuka, N Kunii, M Toyosaki, S Machida, D Ohgiya, Y Ogawa, H Kawada, H Inoko, K Ando. (2011) Cytochrome P450 genetic polymorphisms influence the serum concentration of calcineurin inhibitors in allogeneic hematopoietic SCT recipients. Bone Marrow Transplantation 46:8, 1113-1117
    CrossRef

17. 17

    Junling Yang, Minxia M. He, Wei Niu, Steven A. Wrighton, Li Li, Yang Liu, Chuan Li. (2011) Metabolic capabilities of cytochrome P450 enzymes in Chinese liver microsomes compared with those in Caucasian liver microsomes. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacologyno-no
    CrossRef

18. 18

    Joanna M. Biernacka, Susan L. McElroy, Scott Crow, Alexis Sharp, Joachim Benitez, Marin Veldic, Simon Kung, Julie M. Cunningham, Robert M. Post, David Mrazek, Mark A. Frye. (2011) Pharmacogenomics of antidepressant induced mania: A review and meta-analysis of the serotonin transporter gene (5HTTLPR) association. Journal of Affective Disorders
    CrossRef

19. 19

    Alejandra V Contreras, Tulia Monge-Cazares, Luis Alfaro-Ruiz, Salvador Hernandez-Morales, Haydee Miranda-Ortiz, Karol Carrillo-Sanchez, Gerardo Jimenez-Sanchez, Irma Silva-Zolezzi. (2011) Resequencing, haplotype construction and identification of novel variants of CYP2D6 in Mexican Mestizos. Pharmacogenomics 12:5, 745-756
    CrossRef

20. 20

    Sarah C. Sim, Russ B. Altman, Magnus Ingelman-Sundberg. (2011) Databases in the area of pharmacogenetics. Human Mutation 32:5, 526-531
    CrossRef

21. 21

    Yijing He, Janelle M. Hoskins, Howard L. McLeod. (2011) Copy number variants in pharmacogenetic genes. Trends in Molecular Medicine 17:5, 244-251
    CrossRef

22. 22

    Kristen B. McCullough, Christine M. Formea, Kevin D. Berg, Julianna A. Burzynski, Julie L. Cunningham, Narith N. Ou, Maria I. Rudis, Joanna L. Stollings, Wayne T. Nicholson. (2011) Assessment of the Pharmacogenomics Educational Needs of Pharmacists. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 75:3, 51
    CrossRef

23. 23

    Yan Shi, Ping Xiang, Li Li, Min Shen. (2011) Analysis of 50 SNPs in CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry in Chinese Han population. Forensic Science International 207:1-3, 183-187
    CrossRef

24. 24

    Walter L. Miller, Vishal Agrawal, Duanpen Sandee, Meng Kian Tee, Ningwu Huang, Ji Ha Choi, Kari Morrissey, Kathleen M. Giacomini. (2011) Consequences of POR mutations and polymorphisms. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 336:1-2, 174-179
    CrossRef

25. 25

    Feero, W. Gregory, Guttmacher, Alan E., , Wang, Liewei, McLeod, Howard L., Weinshilboum, Richard M., . (2011) Genomics and Drug Response. New England Journal of Medicine 364:12, 1144-1153
    Full Text

26. 26

    Steven Wong. 2011. Pharmacogenomics, Personalized Medicine and Personalized Justice Influencing the Quality and Practice of Forensic Science. , 93-120.
    CrossRef

27. 27

    Masatoshi Takeda, Rocío Martínez, Takashi Kudo, Toshihisa Tanaka, Masayasu Okochi, Shinji Tagami, Takashi Morihara, Ryota Hashimoto, Ramón Cacabelos. (2011) Pharmacogenomics of Alzheimer's disease. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry 3:1, 10-16
    CrossRef

28. 28

    M V Relling, E E Gardner, W J Sandborn, K Schmiegelow, C-H Pui, S W Yee, C M Stein, M Carrillo, W E Evans, T E Klein. (2011) Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guidelines for Thiopurine Methyltransferase Genotype and Thiopurine Dosing. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 89:3, 387-391
    CrossRef

29. 29

    Manoj Singh Tomar, Anil Kumar Patni, Sunil Iyer, Arshad Hussain Khuroo, Sudershan Kumar, Nageshwar Rao Thudi, Rakesh Jain, Sachin Rana, Tausif Monif. (2011) Comparison of pharmacokinetics of citalopram in healthy Asian Indian and Mexican volunteers. Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs 28:1, 22-26
    CrossRef

30. 30

    Ulrich R. Kleeberg, Marilène Filbet, Giovambattista Zeppetella. (2011) Fentanyl Buccal Tablet for Breakthrough Cancer Pain: Why Titrate?. Pain Practice 11:2, 185-190
    CrossRef

31. 31

    Michaela J. Higgins, Vered Stearns. (2011) Pharmacogenetics of Endocrine Therapy for Breast Cancer. Annual Review of Medicine 62:1, 281-293
    CrossRef

32. 32

    , Bob Wilffert, Jesse Swen, Hans Mulder, Daan Touw, Anke-Hilse Maitland-Van der Zee, Vera Deneer. (2011) From evidence based medicine to mechanism based medicine. Reviewing the role of pharmacogenetics. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy 33:1, 3-9
    CrossRef

33. 33

    Ioannis S. Vizirianakis. (2011) Nanomedicine and personalized medicine toward the application of pharmacotyping in clinical practice to improve drug-delivery outcomes. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 7:1, 11-17
    CrossRef

34. 34

    Donald E McAlpine, Joanna M Biernacka, David A Mrazek, Dennis J OʼKane, Susanna R Stevens, Loralie J Langman, Vicki L Courson, Jyoti Bhagia, Thomas P Moyer. (2011) Effect of Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Polymorphisms on Pharmacokinetics of Venlafaxine. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 33:1, 14-20
    CrossRef

35. 35

    Kosuke Narumiya, Ralf Metzger, Elfriede Bollschweiler, Hakan Alakus, Jan Brabender, Uta Drebber, Arnulf H Hölscher, Ute Warnecke-Eberz. (2011) Impact of ABCB1 C3435T polymorphism on lymph node regression in multimodality treatment of locally advanced esophageal cancer. Pharmacogenomics 12:2, 205-214
    CrossRef

36. 36

    Cynthia Feucht, Dilip R. Patel. (2011) Principles of Pharmacology. Pediatric Clinics of North America 58:1, 11-19
    CrossRef

37. 37

    Mathilde H. Lerche, Sebastian Meier, Pernille R. Jensen, Svein-Olaf Hustvedt, Magnus Karlsson, Jens Ø. Duus, Jan H. Ardenkjaer-Larsen. (2011) Quantitative dynamic nuclear polarization-NMR on blood plasma for assays of drug metabolism. NMR in Biomedicine 24:1, 96-103
    CrossRef

38. 38

    Raj Vuppalanchi. 2011. Metabolism of Drugs and Xenobiotics. , 45-52.
    CrossRef

39. 39

    Serena Amici, Maurizio Paciaroni, Giancarlo Agnelli, Valeria Caso. (2011) Gene-Drug Interaction in Stroke. Stroke Research and Treatment 2011, 1-14
    CrossRef

40. 40

    Mark J Rice. (2011) The institutional review board is an impediment to human research: the result is more animal-based research. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine 6:1, 12
    CrossRef

41. 41

    Catherine Litalien, Pierre Beaulieu. 2011. Molecular Mechanisms of Drug Actions. , 1553-1568.
    CrossRef

42. 42

    Una Glamočlija, Adlija Jevrić-Čaušević. (2010) Genetic polymorphisms in diabetes: Influence on therapy with oral antidiabetics. Acta Pharmaceutica 60:4, 387-406
    CrossRef

43. 43

    Frank Musshoff, Ulrike M. Stamer, Burkhard Madea. (2010) Pharmacogenetics and forensic toxicology. Forensic Science International 203:1-3, 53-62
    CrossRef

44. 44

    , Bob Wilffert, Jesse Swen, Hans Mulder, Daan Touw, Anke-Hilse Maitland-Van der Zee, Vera Deneer. (2010) From evidence based medicine to mechanism based medicine. Reviewing the role of pharmacogenetics. Pharmacy World & Science
    CrossRef

45. 45

    Richard T Woolf, Catherine H Smith. (2010) How genetic variation affects patient response and outcome to therapy for psoriasis. Expert Review of Clinical Immunology 6:6, 957-966
    CrossRef

46. 46

    Alison B. Edelman, Ganesh Cherala, Frank Z. Stanczyk. (2010) Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of contraceptive steroids in obese women: a review. Contraception 82:4, 314-323
    CrossRef

47. 47

    Vishal Agrawal, Ji Ha Choi, Kathleen M. Giacomini, Walter L. Miller. (2010) Substrate-specific modulation of CYP3A4 activity by genetic variants of cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 20:10, 611-618
    CrossRef

48. 48

    Robin E Ferner, Jeffrey K Aronson. (2010) Pharmacogenetics and adverse drug reactions. Adverse Drug Reaction Bulletin &NA;:264, 1015-1018
    CrossRef

49. 49

    James S Green, Travis J O’Brien, Vincent A Chiappinelli, Arthur F Harralson. (2010) Pharmacogenomics instruction in US and Canadian medical schools: implications for personalized medicine. Pharmacogenomics 11:9, 1331-1340
    CrossRef

50. 50

    Karen Rojo Venegas, Margarita Aguilera Gómez, John Allan Eisman, Antonio García Sánchez, María J Faus Dader, Miguel A Calleja Hernández. (2010) Pharmacogenetics of osteoporosis-related bone fractures: moving towards the harmonization and validation of polymorphism diagnostic tools. Pharmacogenomics 11:9, 1287-1303
    CrossRef

51. 51

    H.F. Merk. (2010) Pharmakogenetik. Der Hautarzt 61:8, 650-653
    CrossRef

52. 52

    Wataru Ohashi, Hiroshi Tanaka. (2010) Benefits of Pharmacogenomics in Drug Development—Earlier Launch of Drugs and Less Adverse Events. Journal of Medical Systems 34:4, 701-707
    CrossRef

53. 53

    Kwangmi Ahn, Jiangtao Luo, Arthur Berg, David Keefe, Rongling Wu. (2010) Functional mapping of drug response with pharmacodynamic–pharmacokinetic principles. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 31:7, 306-311
    CrossRef

54. 54

    Sonja Pavlović, Branka Zukić. (2010) Individualized Therapy: Role of Thiopurine S-Methyltransferase Protein and Genetic Variants. Journal of Medical Biochemistry 29:3, 150-156
    CrossRef

55. 55

    Ulrich Rabl, Christian Scharinger, Markus Müller, Lukas Pezawas. (2010) Imaging genetics: implications for research on variable antidepressant drug response. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology 3:4, 471-489
    CrossRef

56. 56

    Mary V Relling, Russ B Altman, Matthew P Goetz, William E Evans. (2010) Clinical implementation of pharmacogenomics: overcoming genetic exceptionalism. The Lancet Oncology 11:6, 507-509
    CrossRef

57. 57

    Howard L. McLeod. (2010) Using patient DNA to optimize therapy in heart failure patients: a move toward perfection. Heart Failure Reviews 15:3, 183-185
    CrossRef

58. 58

    Branka Zukic, Milena Radmilovic, Maja Stojiljkovic, Natasa Tosic, Farzin Pourfarzad, Lidija Dokmanovic, Dragana Janic, Natasa Colovic, Sjaak Philipsen, George P Patrinos, Sonja Pavlovic. (2010) Functional analysis of the role of the TPMT gene promoter VNTR polymorphism in TPMT gene transcription. Pharmacogenomics 11:4, 547-557
    CrossRef

59. 59

    Diran Herebian, Marc Lamshöft, Ertan Mayatepek, Ute Spiekerkoetter. (2010) Identification of NTBC metabolites in urine from patients with hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 using two different mass spectrometric platforms: triple stage quadrupole and LTQ-Orbitrap. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 24:6, 791-800
    CrossRef

60. 60

    Min Lin, Arthur Berg, Rongling Wu. (2010) Modeling the Genetic Etiology of Pharmacokinetic–Pharmacodynamic Links with the Arma Process. Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics 20:2, 351-372
    CrossRef

61. 61

    Hee-Yeon Kay, Hong-Min Wu, Seo-In Lee, Sang-Geon Kim. (2010) Applications of Genetically Modified Tools to Safety Assessment in Drug Development. Toxicological Research 26:1, 1-8
    CrossRef

62. 62

    Thomas J. Urban. (2010) Race, Ethnicity, Ancestry, and Pharmacogenetics. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine 77:2, 133-139
    CrossRef

63. 63

    Aditya Bardia, Vered Stearns. (2010) Pharmacogenomics of Tamoxifen: Ready for Prime Time?. Current Breast Cancer Reports 2:1, 32-41
    CrossRef

64. 64

    G. Zaza, S. Granata, F. Sallustio, G. Grandaliano, F. P. Schena. (2010) Pharmacogenomics: a new paradigm to personalize treatments in nephrology patients. Clinical & Experimental Immunology 159:3, 268-280
    CrossRef

65. 65

    Bas J. M. Peters, Andrei S. Rodin, Anthonius De Boer, Anke-Hilse Maitland-van der Zee. (2010) Methodological and statistical issues in pharmacogenomics. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 62:2, 161-166
    CrossRef

66. 66

    Michaela J. Higgins, Vered Stearns. (2010) CYP2D6 Polymorphisms and Tamoxifen Metabolism: Clinical Relevance. Current Oncology Reports 12:1, 7-15
    CrossRef

67. 67

    J. L. Pilgrim, D. Gerostamoulos, Olaf H. Drummer. (2010) Review: Pharmacogenetic aspects of the effect of cytochrome P450 polymorphisms on serotonergic drug metabolism, response, interactions, and adverse effects. Forensic Science Medicine and Pathology
    CrossRef

68. 68

    Ho Jung Shin, Choong-Hee Lee, Sang Seop Lee, Im-Sook Song, Jae-Gook Shin. (2010) Identification of genetic polymorphisms of human OAT1 and OAT2 genes and their relationship to hOAT2 expression in human liver. Clinica Chimica Acta 411:1-2, 99-105
    CrossRef

69. 69

    Stacy E.F. Melanson. 2009. Pharmacogenomics. .
    CrossRef

70. 70

    Loredana Serpe, Pier Luigi Calvo, Elisabetta Muntoni, Sergio D’Antico, Mario Giaccone, Alessandra Avagnina, Maurizio Baldi, Cristiana Barbera, Franco Curti, Angelo Pera, Mario Eandi, Gian Paolo Zara, Roberto Canaparo. (2009) Thiopurine S -methyltransferase pharmacogenetics in a large-scale healthy Italian–Caucasian population: differences in enzyme activity. Pharmacogenomics 10:11, 1753-1765
    CrossRef

71. 71

    Anil S Modak. (2009) ¹³ C breath tests in personalized medicine: fiction or reality?. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 9:8, 805-815
    CrossRef

72. 72

    R. D. Alarcon. (2009) Pharmacogenomic perspectives on the management of mood disorders. Psychiatric Bulletin 33:10, 361-363
    CrossRef

73. 73

    Sonja Horstmann, Elisabeth B. Binder. (2009) Pharmacogenomics of antidepressant drugs. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 124:1, 57-73
    CrossRef

74. 74

    Ibrahim A Abdel-Hamid, Karl-Erik Andersson. (2009) Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics of sexual dysfunction: current status, gaps and potential applications. Pharmacogenomics 10:10, 1625-1644
    CrossRef

75. 75

    Steven H. Y. Wong. 2009. Pharmacogenomics. .
    CrossRef

76. 76

    Nicolas von Ahsen, Claudia Binder, Jürgen Brockmöller, Michael Oellerich. (2009) CYP2D6 und Tamoxifen: pharmakogenetische Neuentdeckung eines etablierten Medikaments? / CYP2D6 and tamoxifen: pharmacogenetic reinvention of an established drug?. LaboratoriumsMedizin 33:5, 293-302
    CrossRef

77. 77

    Francisco Marín, Rocío González-Conejero, Piera Capranzano, Theodore A. Bass, Vanessa Roldán, Dominick J. Angiolillo. (2009) Pharmacogenetics in Cardiovascular Antithrombotic Therapy. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 54:12, 1041-1057
    CrossRef

78. 78

    Nicolas von Ahsen, Claudia Binder, Jürgen Brockmöller, Michael Oellerich. (2009) CYP2D6 and tamoxifen: pharmacogenetic reinvention of an established drug? ¹. LaboratoriumsMedizin 33:5, ---
    CrossRef

79. 79

    Ramón Cacabelos. (2009) Pharmacogenomics and therapeutic strategies for dementia. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 9:6, 567-611
    CrossRef

80. 80

    Peter A. Kopp. 2009. Genetics and Genomics. , 1-23.
    CrossRef

81. 81

    Ryan P. Owen, Katrin Sangkuhl, Teri E. Klein, Russ B. Altman. (2009) Cytochrome P450 2D6. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 19:7, 559-562
    CrossRef

82. 82

    John W. Devlin, Russel J. Roberts. (2009) Pharmacology of Commonly Used Analgesics and Sedatives in the ICU: Benzodiazepines, Propofol, and Opioids. Critical Care Clinics 25:3, 431-449
    CrossRef

83. 83

    Jaap A. Bakker, Martijn Lindhout, Lambertus Dorland, Jörgen Bierau. (2009) A comparative study of inosine triphosphatase activity in fresh erythrocytes and dried blood spots. Clinica Chimica Acta 405:1-2, 155
    CrossRef

84. 84

    Petal AHM Wijnen, Marjolein Drent, Marja P van Dieijen-Visser, Otto Bekers. (2009) Pharmacogenetic testing after a simple DNA isolation method on buccal swab samples. Pharmacogenomics 10:6, 983-987
    CrossRef

85. 85

    Nada Božina, Vlasta Bradamante, Mila Lovrić. (2009) Genetic Polymorphism of Metabolic Enzymes P450 (CYP) as a Susceptibility Factor for Drug Response, Toxicity, and Cancer Risk. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 60:2, 217-242
    CrossRef

86. 86

    Hossein A. Ghofrani, Robyn J. Barst, Raymond L. Benza, Hunter C. Champion, Karen A. Fagan, Friedrich Grimminger, Marc Humbert, Gérald Simonneau, Duncan J. Stewart, Carlo Ventura, Lewis J. Rubin. (2009) Future Perspectives for the Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 54:1, S108-S117
    CrossRef

87. 87

    Jack Ansell. (2009) Personalizing Health Care—Is This the Right Time for Warfarin?. Journal of General Internal Medicine 24:5, 690-691
    CrossRef

88. 88

    V. Ribrag, S. Koscielny, O. Casasnovas, C. Cazeneuve, P. Brice, F. Morschhauser, J. Gabarre, A. Stamatoullas, G. Lenoir, G. Salles, . (2009) Pharmacogenetic study in Hodgkin lymphomas reveals the impact of UGT1A1 polymorphisms on patient prognosis. Blood 113:14, 3307-3313
    CrossRef

89. 89

    Keun-Ah Cheon, Dae-Yeon Cho, Min-Seong Koo, Dong-Ho Song, Kee Namkoong. (2009) Association Between Homozygosity of a G Allele of the Alpha-2a-Adrenergic Receptor Gene and Methylphenidate Response in Korean Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry 65:7, 564-570
    CrossRef

90. 90

    Yohan Bossé. (2009) Genetics of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a succinct review, future avenues and prospective clinical applications. Pharmacogenomics 10:4, 655-667
    CrossRef

91. 91

    Robert H. Howland. (2009) Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacovigilance. Drug Safety 32:3, 265-270
    CrossRef

92. 92

    Matthew R.G. Taylor, Dobromir Slavov, Kurt Humphrey, Lan Zhao, Jennifer Cockroft, Xiao Zhu, Philip Lavori, Michael R. Bristow, Luisa Mestroni, Laura C. Lazzeroni. (2009) Pharmacogenetic effect of an endothelin-1 haplotype on response to bucindolol therapy in chronic heart failure. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 19:1, 35-43
    CrossRef

93. 93

    Meyling H. Cheok, Nicolas Pottier, Leo Kager, William E. Evans. (2009) Pharmacogenetics in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Seminars in Hematology 46:1, 39-51
    CrossRef

94. 94

    Tuan V Nguyen, Jacqueline R Center, John A Eisman. (2008) Pharmacogenetics of osteoporosis and the prospect of individualized prognosis and individualized therapy. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity 15:6, 481-488
    CrossRef

95. 95

    Petal A H M Wijnen, Marjolein Drent, Patty J Nelemans, Petra M J C Kuijpers, Ger H Koek, Cees Neef, Guido R M M Haenen, Otto Bekers. (2008) Role of Cytochrome P450 Polymorphisms in the Development of Pulmonary Drug Toxicity. Drug Safety 31:12, 1125-1134
    CrossRef

96. 96

    Fang Li, Liewei Wang, Rebecca J. Burgess, Richard M. Weinshilboum. (2008) Thiopurine S-methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: autophagy as a mechanism for variant allozyme degradation. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 18:12, 1083-1094
    CrossRef

97. 97

    Rolf Teschke, Alexander Schwarzenboeck, Karl-Heinz Hennermann. (2008) Causality assessment in hepatotoxicity by drugs and dietary supplements. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 66:6, 758-766
    CrossRef

98. 98

    Lynn R. Webster. (2008) Pharmacogenetics in Pain Management: the Clinical Need. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine 28:4, 569-579
    CrossRef

99. 99

    Gualberto Ruaño, David Villagra, Umme Salma Rahim, Andreas Windemuth, Mohan Kocherla, Bruce Bower, Bonnie L Szarek, John W Goethe. (2008) Increased carrier prevalence of deficient CYP2C9 , CYP2C19 and CYP2D6 alleles in depressed patients referred to a tertiary psychiatric hospital. Personalized Medicine 5:6, 579-587
    CrossRef

100. 100

     Vered Stearns, James M. Rae. (2008) Pharmacogenetics and breast cancer endocrine therapy: CYP2D6 as a predictive factor for tamoxifen metabolism and drug response?. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine 10,
     CrossRef

101. 101

     Dennis L. Murphy, Meredith A. Fox, Kiara R. Timpano, Pablo R. Moya, Renee Ren-Patterson, Anne M. Andrews, Andrew Holmes, Klaus-Peter Lesch, Jens R. Wendland. (2008) How the serotonin story is being rewritten by new gene-based discoveries principally related to SLC6A4, the serotonin transporter gene, which functions to influence all cellular serotonin systems. Neuropharmacology 55:6, 932-960
     CrossRef

102. 102

     L. Wang, R. M. Weinshilboum. (2008) Pharmacogenomics: candidate gene identification, functional validation and mechanisms. Human Molecular Genetics 17:R2, R174-R179
     CrossRef

103. 103

     Shuta Ujiie, Takamitsu Sasaki, Michinao Mizugaki, Masaaki Ishikawa, Masahiro Hiratsuka. (2008) Functional characterization of 23 allelic variants of thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene (TPMT*2 – *24). Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 18:10, 887-893
     CrossRef

104. 104

     F. Di Patti, D. Fanelli, R.S. Pedersen, C. Giuliani, F. Torricelli. (2008) Modelling the pharmacokinetics of tramadol: On the difference between CYP2D6 extensive and poor metabolizers. Journal of Theoretical Biology 254:3, 568-574
     CrossRef

105. 105

     K. Allegaert, J.N. van den Anker. (2008) How to use drugs for pain management: from pharmacokinetics to pharmacogenomics. European Journal of Pain Supplements 2:1, 25-30
     CrossRef

106. 106

     MG Buzzi. (2008) Pathways to the best fit of triptans for migraine patients. Cephalalgia 28, 21-27
     CrossRef

107. 107

     John W Devlin. (2008) The pharmacology of oversedation in mechanically ventilated adults. Current Opinion in Critical Care 14:4, 403-407
     CrossRef

108. 108

     Robert Roberts. (2008) The human genome and prospects for management of cardiovascular disease. Canadian Journal of Cardiology 24, 11C-14C
     CrossRef

109. 109

     Sophie Domingues-Montanari, Maite Mendioroz, Alberto del Rio-Espinola, Israel Fernández-Cadenas, Joan Montaner. (2008) Genetics of stroke: a review of recent advances. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 8:4, 495-513
     CrossRef

110. 110

     D. F. Hayes, V. Stearns, J. Rae, D. Flockhart, . (2008) A Model Citizen? Is Tamoxifen More Effective Than Aromatase Inhibitors if We Pick the Right Patients?. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 100:9, 610-613
     CrossRef

111. 111

     José Antonio Iribarren Loyarte. (2008) Aplicabilidad de los estudios farmacogenéticos en la práctica clínica. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 26, 45-54
     CrossRef

112. 112

     R. Merchán Rodríguez, E. Santos Corraliza, I.J. Pastor Encinas, A. Fuertes Martín. (2008) Factores de riesgo y mecanismos de toxicidad hepática. Medicine - Programa de Formación Médica Continuada Acreditado 10:10, 611-618
     CrossRef

113. 113

     N B Henrikson, W Burke, D L Veenstra. (2008) Ancillary risk information and pharmacogenetic tests: social and policy implications. The Pharmacogenomics Journal 8:2, 85-89
     CrossRef

114. 114

     Sheldon C Cooper, Loretta T Ford, Jonathan D Berg, Matthew JV Lewis. (2008) Ethnic variation of thiopurine S -methyltransferase activity: a large, prospective population study. Pharmacogenomics 9:3, 303-309
     CrossRef

115. 115

     Rika Yuliwulandari, Qomariyah Sachrowardi, Nao Nishida, Miwa Takasu, Lilian Batubara, Tri Panjiasih Susmiarsih, Jecti Teguh Rochani, Riyani Wikaningrum, Risa Miyashita, Taku Miyagawa, Abdul Salam Mudzakir Sofro, Katsushi Tokunaga. (2008) Polymorphisms of promoter and coding regions of the arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) gene in the Indonesian population: proposal for a new nomenclature. Journal of Human Genetics 53:3, 201-209
     CrossRef

116. 116

     Geneen M. Gibson, Geoffrey A. Weinberg. (2008) Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics for the Infectious Diseases Practitioner. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 27:3, 263-264
     CrossRef

117. 117

     Amalia M Issa. (2008) Clinical applications of pharmacogenomics to adverse drug reactions. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology 1:2, 251-260
     CrossRef

118. 118

     Marina Kacevska, Graham R Robertson, Stephen J Clarke, Christopher Liddle. (2008) Inflammation and CYP3A4-mediated drug metabolism in advanced cancer: impact and implications for chemotherapeutic drug dosing. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology 4:2, 137-149
     CrossRef

119. 119

     James N. Ingle. (2008) Pharmacogenomics of tamoxifen and aromatase inhibitors. Cancer 112:S3, 695-699
     CrossRef

120. 120

     Min-Koo CHOI, Im-Sook SONG. (2008) Organic Cation Transporters and their Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Consequences. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics 23:4, 243-253
     CrossRef

121. 121

     G A Poland, I G Ovsyannikova, R M Jacobson, D I Smith. (2007) Heterogeneity in Vaccine Immune Response: The Role of Immunogenetics and the Emerging Field of Vaccinomics. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 82:6, 653-664
     CrossRef

122. 122

     Maria Piane, Patrizia Lulli, Ivano Farinelli, Simona Simeoni, Sergio Filippis, Francesca Romana Patacchioli, Paolo Martelletti. (2007) Genetics of migraine and pharmacogenomics: some considerations. The Journal of Headache and Pain 8:6, 334-339
     CrossRef

123. 123

     Ying Chun Shen, Chiun Hsu, Ann Lii Cheng. (2007) Molecular targeted therapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Targeted Oncology 2:4, 199-210
     CrossRef

124. 124

     Ivan O. Edafiogho, Samuel B. Kombian, Kethireddy V.V. Ananthalakshmi, Noha N. Salama, Natalie D. Eddington, Tiffany L. Wilson, Mariano S. Alexander, Patrice L. Jackson, Clive D. Hanson, K.R. Scott. (2007) Enaminones: Exploring additional therapeutic activities. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 96:10, 2509-2531
     CrossRef

125. 125

     Nisha I Parikh, Ramachandran S Vasan. (2007) Assessing the clinical utility of biomarkers in medicine. Biomarkers in Medicine 1:3, 419-436
     CrossRef

126. 126

     Joel A Lefferts, Claudine L Bartels, Gregory J Tsongalis. (2007) Pharmacogenetics: where are we with respect to personalized medicine?. Expert Opinion on Medical Diagnostics 1:1, 117-128
     CrossRef

127. 127

     Anil S Modak. (2007) Stable isotope breath tests in clinical medicine: a review. Journal of Breath Research 1:1, 014003
     CrossRef

128. 128

     D. E. McAlpine, D. J. O'Kane, J. L. Black, D. A. Mrazek. (2007) Cytochrome P450 2D6 Genotype Variation and Venlafaxine Dosage. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 82:9, 1065-1068
     CrossRef

129. 129

     Dhavendra Kumar. (2007) Genomic medicine: a new frontier of medicine in the twenty first century. Genomic Medicine 1:1-2, 3-7
     CrossRef

130. 130

     Elke HJ Krekels, John N van den Anker, Paola Baiardi, Massimo Cella, Katharine Y Cheng, Diana M Gibb, Hannah Green, Achille Iolascon, Evelyne M Jacqz-Aigrain, Catherijne AJ Knibbe, Gijs WE Santen, Ron HN van Schaik, Dick Tibboel, Oscar E Della Pasqua. (2007) Pharmacogenetics and paediatric drug development: issues and consequences to labelling and dosing recommendations. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 8:12, 1787-1799
     CrossRef

131. 131

     Eva Barragan, Maria Collado, Jose Cervera, Guillermo Martin, Pascual Bolufer, Jose Roman, Miguel A. Sanz. (2007) The GST deletions and NQO1*2 polymorphism confers interindividual variability of response to treatment in patients with acute myeloid leukemia. Leukemia Research 31:7, 947-953
     CrossRef

132. 132

     Laszlo Mark, Gyozo Dani, Özseb Fazekas, Olga Szüle, Hajnalka Kovacs, Andras Katona. (2007) Effects of ezetimibe on lipids and lipoproteins in patients with hyper­cholesterolemia and different apolipoprotein E genotypes. Current Medical Research and Opinion 23:7, 1541-1548
     CrossRef

133. 133

     Marc Ansari, Maja Krajinovic. (2007) Pharmacogenomics of acute leukemia. Pharmacogenomics 8:7, 817-834
     CrossRef

134. 134

     David C. Brousseau, D. Gail McCarver, Amy L. Drendel, Karthika Divakaran, Julie A. Panepinto. (2007) The Effect of CYP2D6 Polymorphisms on the Response to Pain Treatment for Pediatric Sickle Cell Pain Crisis. The Journal of Pediatrics 150:6, 623-626
     CrossRef

135. 135

     F Sjöqvist, E Eliasson. (2007) The Convergence of Conventional Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Pharmacogenetic Testing in Personalized Medicine: Focus on Antidepressants. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 81:6, 899-902
     CrossRef

136. 136

     Kai-Martin Thoms, Christiane Kuschal, Steffen Emmert. (2007) Lessons learned from DNA repair defective syndromes. Experimental Dermatology 16:6, 532-544
     CrossRef

137. 137

     Georg B Ehret, Jules A Desmeules, Barbara Broers. (2007) Methadone-associated long QT syndrome: improving pharmacotherapy for dependence on illegal opioids and lessons learned for pharmacology. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety 6:3, 289-303
     CrossRef

138. 138

     Tomas Novotny, Alena Florianova, Eva Ceskova, Marcela Weislamplova, Vitezslav Palensky, Jana Tomanova, Martina Sisakova, Ondrej Toman, Jindrich Spinar. (2007) Monitoring of QT interval in patients treated with psychotropic drugs. International Journal of Cardiology 117:3, 329-332
     CrossRef

139. 139

     Lilian G. Yengi, Louis Leung, John Kao. (2007) The Evolving Role of Drug Metabolism in Drug Discovery and Development. Pharmaceutical Research 24:5, 842-858
     CrossRef

140. 140

     Erwin P. Bottinger. (2007) Foundations, promises and uncertainties of personalized medicine. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine 74:1, 15-21
     CrossRef

141. 141

     Yuhjung J. Tsai, Ting Feng, Esteban Gonz??lez Burchard. (2007) The Pharmacogenetics of Asthma. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine 14:2, 55-64
     CrossRef

142. 142

     Kimberly A Skelding, Glenn S Gerhard, Robert D Simari, David R Holmes. (2007) The effect of HapMap on cardiovascular research and clinical practice. Nature Clinical Practice Cardiovascular Medicine 4:3, 136-142
     CrossRef

143. 143

     Steven R. Kayser. (2007) Pharmacogenomics and the Potential for Personalized Therapeutics in Cardiovascular Disease. Progress in Cardiovascular Nursing 22:2, 104-107
     CrossRef

144. 144

     Irfan M Hisamuddin, Mohammad A Wehbi, Vincent W Yang. (2007) Pharmacogenetics and diseases of the colon. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology 23:1, 60-66
     CrossRef

145. 145

     Huyen A. Tran, Sonia S. Anand, Graeme J. Hankey, John W. Eikelboom. (2007) Aspirin resistance. Thrombosis Research 120:3, 337-346
     CrossRef

146. 146

     Silvio Garattini. (2007) Pharmacokinetics in cancer chemotherapy. European Journal of Cancer 43:2, 271-282
     CrossRef

147. 147

     Minhaz Uddin Ahmed, Koutarou Idegami, Miyuki Chikae, Kagan Kerman, Piyasak Chaumpluk, Shohei Yamamura, Eiichi Tamiya. (2007) Electrochemical DNA biosensor using a disposable electrochemical printed (DEP) chip for the detection of SNPs from unpurified PCR amplicons. The Analyst 132:5, 431
     CrossRef

148. 148

     Tanya Gulliver, Ronald Morton, Nemr Eid. (2007) Inhaled Corticosteroids in Children with Asthma. Pediatric Drugs 9:3, 185-194
     CrossRef

149. 149

     Leposava Grbovic, Miroslav Radenkovic, Jelena Djokic, Ljiljana Gojkovic-Bukarica, Gordana Dragovic. (2007) New bearings in pharmacotherapeutic strategies: Pharmacogenetics and gene therapy. Vojnosanitetski pregled 64:10, 707-713
     CrossRef

150. 150

     Krisztina Hagymási, Zsolt Tulassay. (2007) Multifaktoriális máj- és epebetegségek genetikai háttere. Orvosi Hetilap 148:4, 147-153
     CrossRef

151. 151

     Leslie C. Jameson, Tod B. Sloan. (2006) Using EEG to monitor anesthesia drug effects during surgery. Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing 20:6, 445-472
     CrossRef

152. 152

     Seth Michelson, Anil Sehgal, Christina Friedrich. (2006) In silico prediction of clinical efficacy. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 17:6, 666-670
     CrossRef

153. 153

     Hiok Hee CHNG. (2006) Management of systemic lupus erythematosus in the coming decade: potentials and challenges. APLAR Journal of Rheumatology 9:4, 419-424
     CrossRef

154. 154

     Antonios G. Mikos, Susan W. Herring, Pannee Ochareon, Jennifer Elisseeff, Helen H. Lu, Rita Kandel, Frederick J. Schoen, Mehmet Toner, David Mooney, Anthony Atala, Mark E. Van Dyke, David Kaplan, Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic. (2006) Engineering Complex Tissues. Tissue Engineering 12:12, 3307-3339
     CrossRef

155. 155

     E. Daudén Tello. (2006) Farmacogenética I. Concepto, historia, objetivos y áreas de estudio. Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas 97:10, 623-629
     CrossRef

156. 156

     Richard M. Weinshilboum. (2006) Pharmacogenomics: Catechol O-Methyltransferase to Thiopurine S-Methyltransferase. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 26:4-6, 537-559
     CrossRef

157. 157

     Karen Mendelson, Frederick J. Schoen. (2006) Heart Valve Tissue Engineering: Concepts, Approaches, Progress, and Challenges. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 34:12, 1799-1819
     CrossRef

158. 158

     Javier Soto Álvarez. (2006) Evaluación económica en la era de la farmacogenética y farmacogenómica: ¿un rayo de luz en la oscuridad?. Medicina Clínica 127:17, 657-659
     CrossRef

159. 159

     Yong-Fang Hu, Wen Qiu, Zhao-Qian Liu, Li-Jun Zhu, Zhong-Qi Liu, Jiang-Hua Tu, Dan Wang, Zhi Li, Jun He, Gan-Ping Zhong, Gan Zhou, Hong-Hao Zhou. (2006) EFFECTS OF GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS OF CYP3A4, CYP3A5 AND MDR1 ON CYCLOSPORINE PHARMACOKINETICS AFTER RENAL TRANSPLANTATION. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 33:11, 1093-1098
     CrossRef

160. 160

     P. KOMWILAISAK, V. BLANCHETTE. (2006) Pharmacokinetic studies of coagulation factors: relevance of plasma and extracellular volume and body weight. Haemophilia 12:s4, 33-39
     CrossRef

161. 161

     Despina G. Contopoulos-Ioannidis, George A. Alexiou, Theodore C. Gouvias, John P.A. Ioannidis. (2006) An empirical evaluation of multifarious outcomes in pharmacogenetics: beta-2 adrenoceptor gene polymorphisms in asthma treatment. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 16:10, 705-711
     CrossRef

162. 162

     Joseph H Nadeau, Eric J Topol. (2006) The genetics of health. Nature Genetics 38:10, 1095-1098
     CrossRef

163. 163

     Noha N. Salama, Ziping Yang, Tot Bui, Rodney J.Y. Ho. (2006) MDR1 haplotypes significantly minimize intracellular uptake and transcellular P-gp substrate transport in recombinant LLC-PK1 cells. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 95:10, 2293-2308
     CrossRef

164. 164

     Tanja Heller, Julia Kirchheiner, Victor W Armstrong, Hilmar Luthe, Mladen Tzvetkov, J??rgen Brockm??ller, Michael Oellerich. (2006) AmpliChip CYP450 GeneChip??: A New Gene Chip That Allows Rapid and Accurate CYP2D6 Genotyping. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 28:5, 673-677
     CrossRef

165. 165

     Ya-Huei Liou, Chien-Ting Lin, Ying-Jye Wu, Lawrence Shih-Hsin Wu. (2006) The high prevalence of the poor and ultrarapid metabolite alleles of CYP2D6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP3A4, and CYP3A5 in Taiwanese population. Journal of Human Genetics 51:10, 857-863
     CrossRef

166. 166

     Richard M. Weinshilboum, Liewei Wang. (2006) Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics: Development, Science, and Translation. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 7:1, 223-245
     CrossRef

167. 167

     Charity D. Scripture, William D. Figg. (2006) Drug interactions in cancer therapy. Nature Reviews Cancer 6:7, 546-558
     CrossRef

168. 168

     Leo Kager, William E Evans. (2006) Pharmacogenomics of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Current Opinion in Hematology 13:4, 260-265
     CrossRef

169. 169

     Stuart McLean, Alan J. Duncan. (2006) Pharmacological Perspectives on the Detoxification of Plant Secondary Metabolites: Implications for Ingestive Behavior of Herbivores. Journal of Chemical Ecology 32:6, 1213-1228
     CrossRef

170. 170

     Robert Roberts, Alexandre F.R. Stewart. (2006) Personalized Genomic Medicine: A Future Prerequisite for the Prevention of Coronary Artery Disease. The American Heart Hospital Journal 4:3, 222-227
     CrossRef

171. 171

     J. Russell Teagarden. (2006) Managed Care Pharmacist - Pharmacogenomics and Its Potential Uses in Managed Care Pharmacy. Hospital Pharmacy 41:5, 477-482
     CrossRef

172. 172

     G. Suman ., Kaiser Jamil .. (2006) Novel CYP3A4 Gene Polymorphisms in Post Chemo Breast Cancer Patients. International Journal of Cancer Research 2:4, 358-366
     CrossRef

173. 173

     Pier Paolo Piccaluga, Giovanni Martinelli, Michele Baccarani. (2006) Advances in the treatment for haematological malignancies. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 7:6, 721-732
     CrossRef

174. 174

     James H. Lewis. (2006) ‘Hy's law,’ the ‘Rezulin Rule,’ and other predictors of severe drug-induced hepatotoxicity: putting risk-benefit into perspective. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 15:4, 221-229
     CrossRef

175. 175

     S T Weiss, A A Litonjua, C Lange, R Lazarus, S B Liggett, E R Bleecker, K G Tantisira. (2006) Overview of the pharmacogenetics of asthma treatment. The Pharmacogenomics Journal
     CrossRef

176. 176

     L Wang, R Weinshilboum. (2006) Thiopurine S-methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: insights, challenges and future directions. Oncogene 25:11, 1629-1638
     CrossRef

177. 177

     (2006) Acetylcysteine in Pulmonary Fibrosis. New England Journal of Medicine 354:10, 1089-1091
     Full Text

178. 178

     Reinhold Kerb. (2006) Implications of genetic polymorphisms in drug transporters for pharmacotherapy. Cancer Letters 234:1, 4-33
     CrossRef

179. 179

     Rocio González-Conejero, Francisco Marín, Javier Corral, Vanessa Roldán. (2006) Fluctuations in coagulation activity among patients with atrial fibrillation who are stably anticoagulated. Future Cardiology 2:2, 197-203
     CrossRef

180. 180

     Navarro, Victor J., Senior, John R., . (2006) Drug-Related Hepatotoxicity. New England Journal of Medicine 354:7, 731-739
     Full Text

181. 181

     Arno G. Motulsky, Ming Qi. (2006) Pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics and ecogenetics. Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B 7:2, 169-170
     CrossRef

182. 182

     Meyling H Cheok, Sanne Lugthart, William E. Evans. (2006) PHARMACOGENOMICS OF ACUTE LEUKEMIA. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 46:1, 317-353
     CrossRef

183. 183

     Graeme J Hankey, John W Eikelboom. (2006) Aspirin resistance. The Lancet 367:9510, 606-617
     CrossRef

184. 184

     Robert G Lowery, Karen Kleman-Leyer. (2006) Transcreener™: screening enzymes involved in covalent regulation. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets 10:1, 179-190
     CrossRef

185. 185

     Meyling H. Cheok, William E. Evans. (2006) Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a model for the pharmacogenomics of cancer therapy. Nature Reviews Cancer 6:2, 117-129
     CrossRef

186. 186

     Michel Eichelbaum, Magnus Ingelman-Sundberg, William E. Evans. (2006) Pharmacogenomics and Individualized Drug Therapy. Annual Review of Medicine 57:1, 119-137
     CrossRef

187. 187

     Martin R Wilkins, Tsuyoshi Shiga, Robert Hughes, Margaret Town. 2006. Genomics, Pharmacogenetics and Proteomics: An Integration. .
     CrossRef

188. 188

     Eveline Jaquenoud Sirot, Jan Willem van der Velden, Katharina Rentsch, Chin B Eap, Pierre Baumann. (2006) Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Pharmacogenetic Tests as Tools in Pharmacovigilance. Drug Safety 29:9, 735-768
     CrossRef

189. 189

     Laurence J. Egan, Luc J.J. Derijks, Daniel W. Hommes. (2006) Pharmacogenomics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 4:1, 21-28
     CrossRef

190. 190

     Gloria R Grice, Terry L Seaton, Abigail M Woodland, Howard L McLeod. (2006) Defining the opportunity for pharmacogenetic intervention in primary care. Pharmacogenomics 7:1, 61-65
     CrossRef

191. 191

     Shiew-Mei Huang, Federico Goodsaid, Atiqur Rahman, Felix Frueh, Lawrence J. Lesko. (2006) Application of Pharmacogenomics in Clinical Pharmacology. Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 16:2-3, 89-99
     CrossRef

192. 192

     John Lynch, Tasha Dubriwny. (2006) Drugs and Double Binds: Racial Identification and Pharmacogenomics in a System of Binary Race Logic. Health Communication 19:1, 61-73
     CrossRef

193. 193

     Jing-Jane Tsai, Der-Jen Yen, Mo-Song Hsih, Shung-Sheng Chen, Reinhard Hiersemenzel, Pascal Edrich, Chi-Wan Lai. (2006) Efficacy and Safety of Levetiracetam (up to 2000 mg/day) in Taiwanese Patients with Refractory Partial Seizures: A Multicenter, Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study. Epilepsia 47:1, 72-81
     CrossRef

194. 194

     Elisabeth B. Binder*, Florian Holsboer. (2006) Pharmacogenomics and antidepressant drugs. Annals of Medicine 38:2, 82-94
     CrossRef

195. 195

     Maria M J van der Vorst, Joana E Kist, Albert J van der Heijden, Jacobus Burggraaf. (2006) Diuretics in Pediatrics. Pediatric Drugs 8:4, 245-264
     CrossRef

196. 196

     Takamitsu SASAKI, Emi GOTO, Yumiko KONNO, Masahiro HIRATSUKA, Michinao MIZUGAKI. (2006) Three Novel Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of the Human Thiopurine S-Methyltransferase Gene in Japanese Individuals. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics 21:4, 332-336
     CrossRef

197. 197

     David S. Jones, Roy H. Perlis. (2006) Pharmacogenetics, Race, and Psychiatry: Prospects and Challenges. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 14:2, 92-108
     CrossRef

198. 198

     Giampietro Gasparini, Raffaele Longo, Francesco Torino, Domenico Gattuso, Alessandro Morabito, Giuseppe Toffoli. (2006) Is tailored therapy feasible in oncology?. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology 57:1, 79-101
     CrossRef

199. 199

     Norman L. Keltner. (2005) Genomic Influences on Schizophrenia-Related Neurotransmitter Systems. Journal of Nursing Scholarship 37:4, 322-328
     CrossRef

200. 200

     Luigi Muratori, Rodolfo Ferrari, Paolo Muratori, Alessandro Granito, Francesco B. Bianchi. (2005) Acute Icteric Hepatitis Induced By a Short Course of Low-Dose Cyclophosphamide in a Patient with Lupus Nephritis. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 50:12, 2364-2365
     CrossRef

201. 201

     H. L. McLeod. (2005) Pharmacogenetic Analysis of Clinically Relevant Genetic Polymorphisms. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41:Supplement 7, S449-S452
     CrossRef

202. 202

     Hong-Guang Xie, Felix W Frueh. (2005) Pharmacogenomics steps toward personalized medicine. Personalized Medicine 2:4, 325-337
     CrossRef

203. 203

     Oreste E. Salavaggione, Liewei Wang, Mathieu Wiepert, Vivien C. Yee, Richard M. Weinshilboum. (2005) Thiopurine S-methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: variant allele functional and comparative genomics. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 15:11, 801-815
     CrossRef

204. 204

     Aki Sakurai, Ai Tamura, Yuko Onishi, Toshihisa Ishikawa. (2005) Genetic polymorphisms of ATP-binding cassette transporters ABCB1 and ABCG2: therapeutic implications. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 6:14, 2455-2473
     CrossRef

205. 205

     Ioannis S Vizirianakis. (2005) Improving pharmacotherapy outcomes by pharmacogenomics: from expectation to reality?. Pharmacogenomics 6:7, 701-711
     CrossRef

206. 206

     Ramón Cacabelos. (2005) Pharmacogenomics and therapeutic prospects in Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 6:12, 1967-1987
     CrossRef

207. 207

     R LANDAU. (2005) Pharmacogenetics: implications for obstetric anesthesia. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 14:4, 316-323
     CrossRef

208. 208

     Claudia Lascar, Philip Barnett. (2005) Defining and Searching Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics to Identify Its Core Research Journals. Science & Technology Libraries 26:1, 69-88
     CrossRef

209. 209

     Marion M Schuierer, Thomas Langmann. (2005) Molecular diagnosis of ATP-binding cassette transporter-related diseases. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 5:5, 755-767
     CrossRef

210. 210

     P. Fontana, J.-L. Reny. (2005) Pharmacogénétique et médicaments antiplaquettaires. La Revue de Médecine Interne 26:9, 725-732
     CrossRef

211. 211

     H. F. Willard, M. Angrist, G. S. Ginsburg. (2005) Genomic medicine: genetic variation and its impact on the future of health care. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360:1460, 1543-1550
     CrossRef

212. 212

     M. Ingelman-Sundberg, C. Rodriguez-Antona. (2005) Pharmacogenetics of drug-metabolizing enzymes: implications for a safer and more effective drug therapy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360:1460, 1563-1570
     CrossRef

213. 213

     P. Klepstad, O. Dale, F. Skorpen, P. C. Borchgrevink, S. Kaasa. (2005) Genetic variability and clinical efficacy of morphine. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 49:7, 902-908
     CrossRef

214. 214

     Barkur S. Shastry. (2005) Genetic diversity and new therapeutic concepts. Journal of Human Genetics 50:7, 321-328
     CrossRef

215. 215

     Peter C. Adamson, Susan M. Blaney. (2005) New Approaches to Drug Development in Pediatric Oncology. The Cancer Journal 11:4, 324-330
     CrossRef

216. 216

     Anna C Need, Arno G Motulsky, David B Goldstein. (2005) Priorities and standards in pharmacogenetic research. Nature Genetics 37:7, 671-681
     CrossRef

217. 217

     Kouji Kajinami, Hiroshi Masuya, Yachiyo Hoshiba, Kenji Takeda, Ryoko Sato, Mizuho Okabayashi, Ernst J Schaefer. (2005) Statin response and pharmacokinetics variants. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 6:8, 1291-1297
     CrossRef

218. 218

     Ulrich Mahlknecht, Susanne Voelter-Mahlknecht. (2005) Pharmacogenomics: questions and concerns. Current Medical Research and Opinion 21:7, 1041-1047
     CrossRef

219. 219

     Philip B Mellen, David M Herrington. (2005) Pharmacogenomics of blood pressure response to antihypertensive treatment. Journal of Hypertension 23:7, 1311-1325
     CrossRef

220. 220

     Kouji Kajinami, Margaret E. Brousseau, Jose M. Ordovas, Ernst J. Schaefer. (2005) A promoter polymorphism in cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase interacts with apolipoprotein E genotype in the LDL-lowering response to atorvastatin. Atherosclerosis 180:2, 407-415
     CrossRef

221. 221

     Charles M. Strom. (2005) Mutation detection, interpretation, and applications in the clinical laboratory setting. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis 573:1-2, 160-167
     CrossRef

222. 222

     Allan B. Okey, Paul C. Boutros, Patricia A. Harper. (2005) Polymorphisms of human nuclear receptors that control expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 15:6, 371-379
     CrossRef

223. 223

     K.J.S. Anand, C. Celeste^Johnston, Tim F. Oberlander, Anna Taddio, Victoria Tutag Lehr, Gary A. Walco. (2005) Analgesia and local anesthesia during invasive procedures in the neonate. Clinical Therapeutics 27:6, 844-876
     CrossRef

224. 224

     Cynthia A. Moore, Muin J. Khoury, Linda A. Bradley. (2005) From Genetics to Genomics: Using Gene-Based Medicine to Prevent Disease and Promote Health in Children. Seminars in Perinatology 29:3, 135-143
     CrossRef

225. 225

     Wilkinson, Grant R., . (2005) Drug Metabolism and Variability among Patients in Drug Response. New England Journal of Medicine 352:21, 2211-2221
     Full Text

226. 226

     D MULLER, T KLEMPAN, V DELUCA, T SICARD, J VOLAVKA, P CZOBOR, B SHEITMAN, J LINDENMAYER, L CITROME, J MCEVOY. (2005) The SNAP-25 gene may be associated with clinical response and weight gain in antipsychotic treatment of schizophrenia. Neuroscience Letters 379:2, 81-89
     CrossRef

227. 227

     Giampietro Gasparini, Raffaele Longo, Francesco Torino, Carlo Barone, Giuseppe Toffoli. (2005) Tailored Therapy of Colorectal Cancer. The Cancer Journal 11:3, 175-188
     CrossRef

228. 228

     Elpis Mantadakis, Peter D. Cole, Barton A. Kamen. (2005) High-Dose Methotrexate in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Where Is the Evidence for Its Continued Use?. Pharmacotherapy 25:5, 748-755
     CrossRef

229. 229

     J J Auletta, H M Lazarus. (2005) Immune restoration following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: an evolving target. Bone Marrow Transplantation 35:9, 835-857
     CrossRef

230. 230

     P. Stolk, E. R. Heerdink, H. G. M. Leufkens. (2005) Changes in the defined daily dose; CYP2D6/CYP3A metabolism as an indicator for dose-setting problems. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 61:3, 243-246
     CrossRef

231. 231

     Willis C Maddrey. (2005) Drug-Induced Hepatotoxicity. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 39:Supplement 2, S83-S89
     CrossRef

232. 232

     Marco Mielcarek, Theodore Gooley, Paul J. Martin, Thomas R. Chauncey, Bessie A. Young, Rainer Storb, Beverly Torok-Storb. (2005) Effects of race on survival after stem cell transplantation. Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation 11:3, 231-239
     CrossRef

233. 233

     Yukiko Nakajima, Yoshiro Saito, Kisho Shiseki, Hiromi Fukushima-Uesaka, Ryuichi Hasegawa, Shogo Ozawa, Kenji Sugai, Masaaki Katoh, Osamu Saitoh, Teiichi Ohnuma, Mitsuru Kawai, Taisuke Ohtsuki, Chieko Suzuki, Narihiro Minami, Hideo Kimura, Yu-ichi Goto, Naoyuki Kamatani, Nahoko Kaniwa, Jun-ichi Sawada. (2005) Haplotype structures of EPHX1 and their effects on the metabolism of carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide in Japanese epileptic patients. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 61:1, 25-34
     CrossRef

234. 234

     Abdallah S. Daar, Peter A. Singer. (2005) Opinion: Pharmacogenetics and geographical ancestry: implications for drug development and global health. Nature Reviews Genetics 6:3, 241-246
     CrossRef

235. 235

     Robert R. Freimuth, Gary D. Stormo, Howard L. McLeod. (2005) PolyMAPr: Programs for polymorphism database mining, annotation, and functional analysis. Human Mutation 25:2, 110-117
     CrossRef

236. 236

     Kouji Kajinami, Margaret E. Brousseau, Stefania Lamon-Fava, Jose M. Ordovas, Ernst J. Schaefer. (2005) Gender-specific effects of estrogen receptor α gene haplotype on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol response to atorvastatin: interaction with apolipoprotein AI gene polymorphism. Atherosclerosis 178:2, 331-338
     CrossRef

237. 237

     Dana C. Crawford, Deborah A. Nickerson. (2005) Definition and Clinical Importance of Haplotypes. Annual Review of Medicine 56:1, 303-320
     CrossRef

238. 238

     M Lin, C Aquilante, J A Johnson, R Wu. (2005) Sequencing drug response with HapMap. The Pharmacogenomics Journal 5:3, 149-156
     CrossRef

239. 239

     H. F. Merk. (2005) Pharmakogenetik. Der Hautarzt 56:1, 44-47
     CrossRef

240. 240

     F. Rodríguez de Castro, J. Solé-Violán, J.C. Rodríguez-Gallego. (2005) Variabilidad genética en la susceptibilidad y en la gravedad de la neumonía. Archivos de Bronconeumología 41, 21-29
     CrossRef

241. 241

     Tsutomu NAKAMURA, Toshiyuki SAKAEDA, Masayoshi TAKAHASHI, Koji HASHIMOTO, Nobuhiro GEMMA, Yuka MORIYA, Chiho KOMOTO, Kohshi NISHIGUCHI, Noboru OKAMURA, Katsuhiko OKUMURA. (2005) Simultaneous Determination of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of MDR1 Genes by Electrochemical DNA Chip. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics 20:3, 219-225
     CrossRef

242. 242

     Julian Little, Linda Sharp, Muin J Khoury, Linda Bradley, Marta Gwinn. (2005) The Epidemiologic Approach to Pharmacogenomics. American Journal of PharmacoGenomics 5:1, 1-20
     CrossRef

243. 243

     DeWayne M. Pursley, Gary A. Silverman. 2005. Impact of the Human Genome Project on Neonatal Care. , 171-185.
     CrossRef

244. 244

     Tobias Egger, Harald Dormann, Gabi Ahne, Andreas Pahl, Ulrich Runge, Tanya Azaz-Livshits, Antje Neubert, Manfred Criegee-Rieck, Karl G Gassmann, Kay Brune. (2005) Cytochrome P450 Polymorphisms in Geriatric Patients. Drugs & Aging 22:3, 265-272
     CrossRef

245. 245

     Francisco Marín, Rocío González-Conejero, Kaeng W. Lee, Javier Corral, Vanessa Roldán, Francisca López, Francisco Sogorb, Juan Caturla, Gregory Y.H. Lip, Vicente Vicente. (2005) A pharmacogenetic effect of factor XIII valine 34 leucine polymorphism on fibrinolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 45:1, 25-29
     CrossRef

246. 246

     Yukio Ishizawa, Norio Yasui-Furukori, Takenori Takahata, Mutsuo Sasaki, Tomonori Tateishi. (2005) The Effect of Aging on the Relationship between the Cytochrome P450 2C19 Genotype and Omeprazole Pharmacokinetics. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 44:11, 1179-1189
     CrossRef

247. 247

     Peter M Rothwell. (2005) Subgroup analysis in randomised controlled trials: importance, indications, and interpretation. The Lancet 365:9454, 176-186
     CrossRef

248. 248

     Julia Kirchheiner, Ivar Roots, Mark Goldammer, Bernd Rosenkranz, J??rgen Brockm??ller. (2005) Effect of Genetic Polymorphisms in Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 and CYP2C8 on the Pharmacokinetics of Oral Antidiabetic Drugs. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 44:12, 1209-1225
     CrossRef

249. 249

     Dario Cattaneo, Anna Tankiewicz, Simona Merlini, Norberto Perico, Giuseppe Remuzzi. (2004) Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics of immunosuppressive agents: perspective for individualized therapy. Personalized Medicine 1:1, 53-62
     CrossRef

250. 250

     Jean-Marie Reimund, Olivier Scheer, Christian D Muller, Guillaume Pinna, Bernard Duclos, René Baumann. (2004) In vitro modulation of inflammatory cytokine production by three lipid emulsions with different fatty acid compositions. Clinical Nutrition 23:6, 1324-1332
     CrossRef

251. 251

     Michel Hasselmann, Jean-Marie Reimund. (2004) Lipids in the nutritional support of the critically ill patients. Current Opinion in Critical Care 10:4, 449-455
     CrossRef

252. 252

     Ronald J. A. Trent, Bing Yu, Melody Caramins. 2004. Introduction of Molecular Genetics and Genomics Into Clinical Practice. , 676-681.
     CrossRef

253. 253

     RICHARD L. KRAVITZ, NAIHUA DUAN, JOEL BRASLOW. (2004) Evidence-Based Medicine, Heterogeneity of Treatment Effects, and the Trouble with Averages. The Milbank Quarterly 82:4, 661-687
     CrossRef

254. 254

     Kouji Kajinami, Noboru Takekoshi, Margaret E. Brousseau, Ernst J. Schaefer. (2004) Pharmacogenetics of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors: exploring the potential for genotype-based individualization of coronary heart disease management. Atherosclerosis 177:2, 219-234
     CrossRef

255. 255

     Hubert Hug, Robert Dannecker, Richard Schindler, Dario Bagatto, André Stephan, Ralf Arno Wess, Joseph Gut. (2004) Ontology-based knowledge management of troglitazone-induced hepatotoxicity. Drug Discovery Today 9:22, 948-954
     CrossRef

256. 256

     Lynn B Jorde, Stephen P Wooding. (2004) Genetic variation, classification and 'race'. Nature Genetics 36:11s, S28-S33
     CrossRef

257. 257

     Daniel W. Nebert, Elliot S. Vesell. (2004) Advances in pharmacogenomics and individualized drug therapy: exciting challenges that lie ahead. European Journal of Pharmacology 500:1-3, 267-280
     CrossRef

258. 258

     Wylie Burke. (2004) GENETIC TESTING IN PRIMARY CARE. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 5:1, 1-14
     CrossRef

259. 259

     Laurence J. Egan. (2004) Drug interactions in gastroenterology: Mechanisms, consequences, and how to avoid. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2:9, 725-730
     CrossRef

260. 260

     Stephen B. Liggett. (2004) Opinion: Genetically modified mouse models for pharmacogenomic research. Nature Reviews Genetics 5:9, 657-663
     CrossRef

261. 261

     Richard Weinshilboum, Liewei Wang. (2004) Pharmacogenomics: bench to bedside. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3:9, 739-748
     CrossRef

262. 262

     Urs A. Meyer. (2004) Timeline: Pharmacogenetics – five decades of therapeutic lessons from genetic diversity. Nature Reviews Genetics 5:9, 669-676
     CrossRef

263. 263

     Walter H. Koch. (2004) Technology platforms for pharmacogenomic diagnostic assays. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3:9, 749-761
     CrossRef

264. 264

     Christian Lavedan, Gunther Birznieks, Marlene Dressman, Karen McCullough, Rebecca Paczkowski, Rosa Torres, Curt Wolfgang, Mihael Polymeropoulos. (2004) Translating the Genome into individualized therapeutics. Drug Development Research 62:4, 371-382
     CrossRef

265. 265

     Teun van Gelder, Dennis A. Hesselink, Reinier M. van Hest, Ron A.A. Mathôt, Ron van Schaik. (2004) Pharmacogenetics in Immunosuppressive Therapy. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 26:4, 343-346
     CrossRef

266. 266

     Dany Anglicheau, Christophe Legendre, Eric Thervet. (2004) Pharmacogenetics in Solid Organ Transplantation: Present Knowledge and Future Perspectives. Transplantation 78:3, 311-315
     CrossRef

267. 267

     Michael A Hillman, Russell A Wilke, Michael D Caldwell, Richard L Berg, Ingrid Glurich, James K Burmester. (2004) Relative impact of covariates in prescribing warfarin according to CYP2C9 genotype. Pharmacogenetics 14:8, 539-547
     CrossRef

268. 268

     Silvia Mascheretti, Stefan Schreiber. (2004) The role of pharmacogenomics in the prediction of efficacy of anti-TNF therapy in patients with Crohn’s disease. Pharmacogenomics 5:5, 479-486
     CrossRef

269. 269

     Ulrich Klotz, Matthias Schwab, Gerhard Treiber. (2004) CYP2C19 Polymorphism and Proton Pump Inhibitors. Pharmacology and Toxicology 95:1, 2-8
     CrossRef

270. 270

     Nicola F. Smith, William D. Figg, Alex Sparreboom. (2004) Recent advances in pharmacogenetic approaches to anticancer drug development. Drug Development Research 62:3, 233-253
     CrossRef

271. 271

     Charles J. Epstein. (2004) Genetic testing: Hope or hype?. Genetics in Medicine 6:4, 165-172
     CrossRef

272. 272

     Christina L. Aquilante, Maximilian T. Lobmeyer, Taimour Y. Langaee, Julie A. Johnson. (2004) Comparison of Cytochrome P450 2C9 Genotyping Methods and Implications for the Clinical Laboratory. Pharmacotherapy 24:6, 720-726
     CrossRef

273. 273

     Silvia Mascheretti, Peter J.P Croucher, Stefan Schreiber. (2004) Pharmacogenetics of inflammatory bowel disease. Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology 18:3, 597-609
     CrossRef

274. 274

     C.J. Zheng, L. Z. Sun, L. Y. Han, Z. L. Ji, X. Chen, Y. Z. Chen. (2004) Drug ADME-associated protein database as a resource for facilitating pharmacogenomics research. Drug Development Research 62:2, 134-142
     CrossRef

275. 275

     Paolo Preziosi. (2004) Opinion: Science, pharmacoeconomics and ethics in drug R&D: a sustainable future scenario?. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3:6, 521-526
     CrossRef

276. 276

     William E. Evans, Mary V. Relling. (2004) Moving towards individualized medicine with pharmacogenomics. Nature 429:6990, 464-468
     CrossRef

277. 277

     Richard Aplenc, Beverly Lange. (2004) Pharmacogenetic determinants of outcome in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. British Journal of Haematology 125:4, 421-434
     CrossRef

278. 278

     Laurence J Egan, William J Sandborn. (2004) Advances in the treatment of Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 126:6, 1574-1581
     CrossRef

279. 279

     Cynthia A. Prows, Daniel R. Prows. (2004) Medication Selection by Genotype. AJN, American Journal of Nursing 104:5, 60-70
     CrossRef

280. 280

     Pui, Ching-Hon, Relling, Mary V., Downing, James R., . (2004) Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. New England Journal of Medicine 350:15, 1535-1548
     Full Text

281. 281

     Christopher Shimizu, Peter Bryant-Greenwood. (2004) Post-genome molecular diagnostics in obstetrics. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 16:2, 167-177
     CrossRef

282. 282

     S. Louis Bridges, Jr.. (2004) Genetic markers of treatment response in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis & Rheumatism 50:4, 1019-1022
     CrossRef

283. 283

     Hong-Guang Xie, Alastair JJ Wood, Richard B Kim, C Michael Stein, Grant R Wilkinson. (2004) Genetic variability in CYP3A5 and its possible consequences. Pharmacogenomics 5:3, 243-272
     CrossRef

284. 284

     Gary H Gibbons. (2004) Physiology, Genetics, and Cardiovascular Disease: Focus on African Americans. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension 6:s4, 11-18
     CrossRef

285. 285

     H. E. Wiersma, R. P. Koopmans, A. P. Bos, H. Berg, W. M. C. Aalderen, R. H. N. Schaik, J. N. Anker. (2004) Het juiste geneesmiddel voor de juiste patiënt: farmacogenetica in de kindergeneeskundige praktijk. Tijdschrift voor kindergeneeskunde 72:2, 94-101
     CrossRef

286. 286

     Magnus Ingelman-Sundberg. (2004) Pharmacogenetics of cytochrome P450 and its applications in drug therapy: the past, present and future. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 25:4, 193-200
     CrossRef

287. 287

     David A. Fishbain, Dana Fishbain, John Lewis, R. B. Cutler, Brandly Cole, H. L. Rosomoff, R. Steele Rosomoff. (2004) Genetic Testing for Enzymes of Drug Metabolism: Does It Have Clinical Utility for Pain Medicine at the Present Time? A Structured Review. Pain Medicine 5:1, 81-93
     CrossRef

288. 288

     Luc M Delaunois. (2004) Mechanisms in pulmonary toxicology. Clinics in Chest Medicine 25:1, 1-14
     CrossRef

289. 289

     Ronald JA Trent, Bing Yu, Melody Caramins. (2004) Challenges for clinical genetic DNA testing. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 4:2, 201-208
     CrossRef

290. 290

     M. P. Goetz, M. M. Ames, R. M. Weinshilboum. (2004) Primer on Medical Genomics Part XII: Pharmacogenomics--General Principles With Cancer as a Model. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 79:3, 376-384
     CrossRef

291. 291

     Monica Gandhi, Francesca Aweeka, Ruth M. Greenblatt, Terrence F. Blaschke. (2004) S EX D IFFERENCES IN P HARMACOKINETICS AND P HARMACODYNAMICS. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 44:1, 499-523
     CrossRef

292. 292

     Christopher R Flowers, David Veenstra. (2004) The Role of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis in the Era of Pharmacogenomics. PharmacoEconomics 22:8, 481-493
     CrossRef

293. 293

     Jeffrey S Ross. (2004) Targeted Therapy for Cancer. American Journal of Cancer 3:4, 205-214
     CrossRef

294. 294

     Jeffrey S. Ross, David P. Schenkein, Robert Pietrusko, Mark Rolfe, Gerald P. Linette, James Stec, Nancy E. Stagliano, Geoffrey S. Ginsburg, W. Fraser Symmans, Lajos Pusztai, Gabriel N. Hortobagyi. (2004) Targeted Therapies for Cancer 2004. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 122:4, 598-609
     CrossRef

295. 295

     Toshihisa ISHIKAWA, Hiroyuki HIRANO, Yuko ONISHI, Aki SAKURAI, Shigeki TARUI. (2004) Functional Evaluation of ABCB1 (P-Glycoprotein) Polymorphisms: High-Speed Screening and Structure-Activity Relationship Analyses. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics 19:1, 1-14
     CrossRef

296. 296

     Shanqun Jiang, Yi-Hsiang Hsu, Xin Xu, Houxun Xing, Changzhong Chen, Tianhua Niu, Yan Zhang, Shaojie Peng, Xiping Xu. (2004) The C677T polymorphism of the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene is associated with the level of decrease on diastolic blood pressure in essential hypertension patients treated by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor. Thrombosis Research 113:6, 361-369
     CrossRef

297. 297

     Toshihisa Ishikawa, Yuko Onishi, Hiroyuki Hirano, Keisuke Oosumi, Makoto Nagakura, Shigeki Tarui. (2004) Pharmacogenomics of Drug Transporters: A New Approach to Functional Analysis of the Genetic Polymorphisms of ABCB1 (P-Glycoprotein/MDR1). Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 27:7, 939-948
     CrossRef

298. 298

     Theresa A. Beery, Marcia J. Hern. (2004) Genetic Practice, Education, and Research. Clinical Nurse Specialist 18:3, 126-132
     CrossRef

299. 299

     David W J Clark, Emma Donnelly, David M Coulter, Rebecca L Roberts, Martin A Kennedy. (2004) Linking Pharmacovigilance with Pharmacogenetics. Drug Safety 27:15, 1171-1184
     CrossRef

300. 300

     Jerry W Pickering, Gwendolyn A McMillin, Friederike Gedge, Harry R Hill, Elaine Lyon. (2004) Flow Cytometric Assay for Genotyping Cytochrome P450 2C9 and 2C19. American Journal of PharmacoGenomics 4:3, 199-207
     CrossRef

301. 301

     Toshihisa Ishikawa, Akira Tsuji, Kenichi Inui, Yoshimichi Sai, Naohiko Anzai, Morimasa Wada, Hitoshi Endou, Yasuhiro Sumino. (2004) The genetic polymorphism of drug transporters: functional analysis approaches. Pharmacogenomics 5:1, 67-99
     CrossRef

302. 302

     Vidya Krishnan, Patrick Murray. (2003) Pharmacologic issues in the critically ill. Clinics in Chest Medicine 24:4, 671-688
     CrossRef

303. 303

     DAN M. RODEN. (2003) Antiarrhythmic Drugs:. Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology 26:12, 2340-2348
     CrossRef

304. 304

     David B. Goldstein, Kourosh R. Ahmadi, Mike E. Weale, Nicholas W. Wood. (2003) Genome scans and candidate gene approaches in the study of common diseases and variable drug responses. Trends in Genetics 19:11, 615-622
     CrossRef

305. 305

     Japie A. Louw, I.N. (Solly) Marks. (2003) The management of peptic ulcer disease. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology 19:6, 533-539
     CrossRef

306. 306

     Julie A Johnson. (2003) Pharmacogenetics: potential for individualized drug therapy through genetics. Trends in Genetics 19:11, 660-666
     CrossRef

307. 307

     Renke Maas, Rainer H Böger. (2003) Antihypertensive therapy: special focus on drug interactions. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety 2:6, 549-579
     CrossRef

308. 308

     Evangelia E. Ntzani, John P. A. Ioannidis. (2003) Pharmacogenetics and association studies in schizophrenia. Drug Development Research 60:2, 152-163
     CrossRef

309. 309

     Guttmacher, Alan E., Collins, Francis S., . (2003) Welcome to the Genomic Era. New England Journal of Medicine 349:10, 996-998
     Full Text

310. 310

     Guttmacher, Alan E., Collins, Francis S., , Burke, Wylie, . (2003) Genomics as a Probe for Disease Biology. New England Journal of Medicine 349:10, 969-974
     Full Text

311. 311

     R. Nagasubramanian, M. Eileen Dolan. (2003) feature: Pharmacogenomics - Racing Towards Personalized Prescriptions. Laboratory Medicine 34:9, 651-659
     CrossRef

312. 312

     Ramón Cacabelos. (2003) The application of functional genomics to Alzheimer’s disease. Pharmacogenomics 4:5, 597-621
     CrossRef

313. 313

     Po-Ying Chan-Hui. (2003) From PGx to molecular diagnostics and personalized medicine. Drug Discovery Today 8:18, 829-831
     CrossRef

314. 314

     Steven Gutman, David Feigal. (2003) Decision making in pharmacogenomic diagnosis: is there anything new under the sun?. Drug Discovery Today 8:17, 765-766
     CrossRef

315. 315

     Lee, William M., . (2003) Drug-Induced Hepatotoxicity. New England Journal of Medicine 349:5, 474-485
     Full Text

316. 316

     Guttmacher, Alan E., Collins, Francis S., , Nabel, Elizabeth G., . (2003) Cardiovascular Disease. New England Journal of Medicine 349:1, 60-72
     Full Text

317. 317

     Roland Valdes Jr, Mark W Linder, Saeed A Jortani. (2003) What is next in pharmacogenomics? Translating it to clinical practice. Pharmacogenomics 4:4, 499-505
     CrossRef

318. 318

     Raymond C Givens, Paul B Watkins. (2003) Pharmacogenetics and clinical gastroenterology. Gastroenterology 125:1, 240-248
     CrossRef

319. 319

     (2003) Pharmacogenetics. New England Journal of Medicine 348:20, 2041-2043
     Full Text

320. 320

     Daniel Kamin, Colleen Hadigan. (2003) Hyperlipidemia in children with HIV infection: an emerging problem. Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy 1:1, 143-150
     CrossRef

321. 321

     Tina Penick Brock, John M Valgus, Scott R Smith, Kelly M Summers. (2003) Pharmacogenomics: implications and considerations for pharmacists. Pharmacogenomics 4:3, 321-330
     CrossRef

322. 322

     Alex Sparreboom, Romano Danesi, Yuichi Ando, Juliana Chan, William D. Figg. (2003) Pharmacogenomics of ABC transporters and its role in cancer chemotherapy. Drug Resistance Updates 6:2, 71-84
     CrossRef

323. 323

     Goldstein, David B., . (2003) Pharmacogenetics in the Laboratory and the Clinic. New England Journal of Medicine 348:6, 553-556
     Full Text

324. 324

     Wood, Alastair J.J., , Evans, William E., McLeod, Howard L., . (2003) Pharmacogenomics — Drug Disposition, Drug Targets, and Side Effects. New England Journal of Medicine 348:6, 538-549
     Full Text

325. 325

     &NA;. (2003) Personalised medicines, according to genotype?. Inpharma Weekly &NA;:1374, 3
     CrossRef

326. 326

     Daniel W Nebert, Lucia Jorge-Nebert, Elliot S Vesell. (2003) Pharmacogenomics and ???Individualized Drug Therapy???. American Journal of PharmacoGenomics 3:6, 361-370
     CrossRef

327. 327

     Salim Fredericks, David W Holt, Iain A M MacPhee. (2003) The Pharmacogenetics of Immunosuppression for Organ Transplantation. American Journal of PharmacoGenomics 3:5, 291-301
     CrossRef

328. 328

     Bryn Williams-Jones, Oonagh P Corrigan. (2003) Rhetoric and Hype. American Journal of PharmacoGenomics 3:6, 375-383
     CrossRef

329. 329

     Bradley D Freeman, Timothy G Buchman, Barbara A Zehnbauer. (2003) Template-directed dye-terminator incorporation with fluorescence polarization detection for analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with cardiovascular and thromboembolic disease. Thrombosis Research 111:6, 373-379
     CrossRef

Letters