Original Article
Duration of Humoral Immunity to Common Viral and Vaccine Antigens
N Engl J Med 2007; 357:1903-1915November 8, 2007
- Abstract
Background
Maintenance of long-term antibody responses is critical for protective immunity against many pathogens. However, the duration of humoral immunity and the role played by memory B cells remain poorly defined.
Methods
We performed a longitudinal analysis of antibody titers specific for viral antigens (vaccinia, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella–zoster virus, and Epstein–Barr virus) and nonreplicating antigens (tetanus and diphtheria) in 45 subjects for a period of up to 26 years. In addition, we measured antigen-specific memory B cells by means of limiting-dilution analysis, and we compared memory B-cell frequencies to their corresponding serum antibody levels.
Results
Antiviral antibody responses were remarkably stable, with half-lives ranging from an estimated 50 years for varicella–zoster virus to more than 200 years for other viruses such as measles and mumps. Antibody responses against tetanus and diphtheria antigens waned more quickly, with estimated half-lives of 11 years and 19 years, respectively. B-cell memory was long-lived, but there was no significant correlation between peripheral memory B-cell numbers and antibody levels for five of the eight antigens tested.
Conclusions
These studies provide quantitative analysis of serologic memory for multiple antigens in subjects followed longitudinally over the course of more than one decade. In cases in which multiple exposures or repeated vaccinations were common, memory B-cell numbers did not correlate with antibody titers. This finding suggests that peripheral memory B cells and antibody-secreting plasma cells may represent independently regulated cell populations and may play different roles in the maintenance of protective immunity.
Media in This Article
Figure 1
Antibody Responses after Viral Infection or Vaccination with Nonreplicating Protein Antigens.Figure 2
Longitudinal Analysis of Serum Antibody Titers in Representative Subjects.Article Activity
- Article
Recovery from acute viral or microbial infection often results in long-term or even lifelong immunity.1-3 Although the importance of sustaining protective humoral immunity is widely recognized, the mechanisms involved in this maintenance remain unclear.3-10 To address the issue of antibody maintenance after infection or vaccination, we conducted a longitudinal analysis of antibody titers against multiple antigens with the use of serum samples banked from a combination of scheduled (annual) and event-based collections. On the basis of these studies, we determined whether antigen-specific antibody responses were measurably boosted through environmental exposure, infection, or vaccination. Moreover, we determined the duration of serologic memory over long periods of time during which specific boosting of antibody titers was not observed.
Methods
Subjects
We recruited human subjects from the Oregon National Primate Research Center through campuswide e-mail, inviting them to provide serum samples for banking at enrollment and to provide additional serum samples from scheduled blood draws. Fifty-one people responded, providing written informed consent and completing an extensive medical-history questionnaire before providing samples for study. No inclusion criteria were used other than a requirement that the subject have at least three serum samples banked for 3 years or more before the study began. On the basis of this criterion, 6 subjects were excluded, and 45 subjects provided a total of 630 serum samples for analysis.
Samples were drawn annually as part of a centerwide, comprehensive program to permit serologic testing of people working in close proximity with nonhuman primates. In the event of an exposure to an animal (e.g., a scratch or bite), an additional serum sample was drawn. Blood samples were also drawn at weekly intervals after smallpox vaccination in a subgroup of eight subjects in order to monitor the acute phase of the immune response. The study was approved by the institutional review board of Oregon Health & Science University.
ELISA and Memory B-Cell Measurement
Measurement of antibodies by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed as previously described.11,12 Antigens included vaccinia (WR strain prepared in our laboratory), measles (Edmonston strain, Biodesign), mumps (Enders strain, Biodesign), rubella (HPV77 strain, Viral Antigens), varicella–zoster virus (Rod strain, Biodesign), Epstein–Barr virus gp125 (Viral Antigens), tetanus toxin (C-fragment), and diphtheria toxin (EMD Biosciences). International serum standards were obtained from the National Institute for Biological Standards and Controls in Hertfordshire, England. An optimized limiting-dilution assay was used to measure memory B cells.13
Statistical Analysis
Before the final analysis, antibody data were censored by excluding unvaccinated subjects, seronegative subjects, and subjects with test results that were equivocal (<200 ELISA units). A total of one to nine subjects were excluded, depending on the antigen. We removed data points obtained during or shortly after an acute immune response before determining antibody half-life estimates. For example, if more than a doubling of the titer was observed between contiguous time points (hereafter referred to as an antibody spike), then that time point and those from the next 3 years were removed from the analysis so that the rapid initial decrease in antibodies typically observed shortly after antigenic exposure14-17 would not influence the estimated long-term decay rate. A subject had to have at least three data points for a period of 3 years or more in order to be included in the final analysis. Tetanus and diphtheria vaccines are frequently administered in combination,18 so if an antibody spike was observed between contiguous data points for one antigen, a reexposure was assumed for the reciprocal antigen and removed from the analysis. Since tetanus–diphtheria toxoid revaccination is recommended every 5 to 10 years, contiguous data points separated by more than 5 years were not used for the analysis of these antigens.
To address possible changes before and after acute immune responses, the analysis was performed first for only the longest period of observation and then for all the data, with each period treated as an independent longitudinal series. The results of these two analyses did not differ. For each antigen described in this study, we present the results of the analysis in which all data were used.
Rates of antibody decay were estimated with the use of a longitudinal mixed-effects model (PROC MIXED; SAS version 9.1, SAS Institute). The model had a fixed effect for age and gaussian-distributed random intercepts and slopes (see the Supplementary Appendix, available with the full text of this article at www.nejm.org). Random components were assumed to be uncorrelated. Measures were logarithmically transformed (on a natural log scale) before analysis, resulting in a single-exponent decay model of the untransformed data. Visual inspection indicated that the linear model fitted the data for the subjects well. We assessed the influence of data for any one subject on the analysis with the use of cross-validation. The results were not influenced by any one person's series.
Half-life estimates were obtained by transforming the decay rate and the boundaries of the 95% confidence interval obtained from the fixed-effects slope component of the mixed-effects model. If a specific antibody level does not significantly decay or shows even a small insignificant increase over time (e.g., <1%), then the calculated half-life becomes infinity. To confirm the results from our mixed-effects model, we also fitted least-squares linear regression models to each series. The results from the two approaches were nearly identical (see the Supplementary Appendix). For each antigen, we determined whether the population slope was equal to zero in the mixed-effects model. The P values presented are two-sided, and a P value of less than 0.05 was considered to indicate statistical significance. The comparisons of memory B-cell frequencies and associated serum antibody titers were modeled through least-squares linear regression after log10 transformation.
Results
Serum Samples and Characteristics of the Subjects
A total of 630 serum samples from 45 subjects were obtained for this study or were obtained from the Oregon National Primate Research Center serum bank (Table 1Table 1
Characteristics of the Subjects.). The majority of these serum samples were obtained from scheduled collections, with 50 samples (7.9%) obtained after an unscheduled event (e.g., exposure to an animal). Each subject provided, on average, 14.0 serum samples (median, 11) during an average period of 15.2 years (median, 15.6). The majority of subjects had received smallpox vaccination during childhood and had recovered from viral infections, including measles, mumps, rubella, Epstein–Barr virus, and varicella–zoster infections. The subjects in this cohort had common coexisting conditions but no specific immune deficiencies (Table 1 of the Supplementary Appendix). The duration of serum antibody production was determined with the use of a mixed-effects model of longitudinal analysis. Overall, antigen-specific antibody responses were long-lived, and we found no significant differences in antibody-maintenance patterns according to sex (Table 2Table 2
Duration of Antigen-Specific Serum Antibody Production.).Vaccinia
One potential mechanism for maintaining long-term immunity to a nonpersisting pathogen is through intermittent reexposure. To examine this possibility, we evaluated antibody responses after smallpox vaccination (Figure 1AFigure 1
Antibody Responses after Viral Infection or Vaccination with Nonreplicating Protein Antigens.). A total of 39 of 43 subjects born before 1972 (91%) were seropositive for vaccinia (Fig. 1A in the Supplementary Appendix), which is consistent with the findings of a previous study.11 Before 2003, when eight subjects received booster vaccination, there were only two instances of an antibody spike that was indicative of vaccination or exposure (0.3 event per 100 person-years). This finding is consistent with the discontinuation of routine vaccination in 1972 and the absence of endemic orthopoxviruses in North America that are known to infect humans. Excluding serum samples obtained after smallpox vaccination in 2003, a putative protective level of antiviral antibody11,21 was present in 28 of the 45 subjects (62%), and the level of vaccinia-specific antibodies decreased slowly, with an estimated half-life of 92 years (95% confidence interval [CI], 46 to infinity; P=0.049).Measles
Measles is rare in the United States, but it remains a serious threat through importation.22 An analysis of measles-specific antibodies revealed that five subjects had spikes in serum antibody levels (Fig. 1B in the Supplementary Appendix). Two subjects received documented measles–mumps–rubella (MMR) vaccinations; one seroconverted, whereas the other seropositive subject had antibody titers that did not change after vaccination. Four subjects unknowingly contracted a cross-reactive but uncharacterized paramyxovirus infection from exposure to diseased nonhuman primates during a 1999 outbreak. On the basis of the antibody titers from the last available blood sample drawn before a recent MMR vaccination or serologic boosting during the 1999 outbreak of primate paramyxovirus, 43 of the 45 subjects (96%) were seropositive, with a putative protective level of at least 0.2 IU of antimeasles antibodies per milliliter23 in 41 subjects (91%) (Fig. 1B in the Supplementary Appendix). The decrease in measles-specific antibodies (Figure 1B) was not significant (P=0.94) and is likely to be maintained for life (estimated half-life, 3014 years; 95% CI, 104 to infinity).
Mumps
Although typically less severe than measles, mumps is another childhood disease with the potential for serious complications.18 In this cohort, 41 of 45 subjects (91%) were seropositive for mumps (Fig. 1C in the Supplementary Appendix). Two subjects received MMR vaccinations during the period of observation, and two other subjects had spikes in antibody levels, one in 1998 and the other in 2004. These spikes may have been the consequence of exposure to naturally occurring mumps rather than MMR vaccination. This incidence rate of 0.3 event per 100 person-years is consistent with a steady decrease in prevalence18 since routine vaccination began in 1977. Antibody responses to mumps (Figure 1C), like those to measles, were long-lived (estimated half-life, 542 years; 95% CI, 90 to infinity) and showed no significant decrease (P=0.69).
Rubella
Rubella was a leading cause of birth defects in the United States before immunization programs were implemented in the 1970s.18 A total of 40 of the 45 subjects in our cohort (89%) were seropositive for rubella (Fig. 1D in the Supplementary Appendix). We identified two subjects with documented MMR vaccinations and one subject with a spike in preexisting rubella-specific titers in 2003. Because of an 8-year gap between contiguous serum samples, it is unclear whether the change in this latter subject was due to a natural case of rubella or variability in serum titers. In any case, a spike in rubella-specific antibodies is uncommon, with a low overall incidence rate of 0.15 event per 100 person-years. A putative protective level of at least 10 IU of antirubella antibodies per milliliter24 was reached in 39 of the 45 subjects (87%). Rubella-specific immunity (Figure 1D) was maintained, with an estimated half-life of 114 years (95% CI, 48 to infinity) and no significant rate of decrease (P=0.15).
After reviewing the medical histories of the subjects, we identified six subjects in whom only vaccine-induced immunity against measles had developed, four subjects in whom vaccine-induced immunity against mumps had developed, and seven subjects in whom vaccine-induced immunity against rubella had developed. Exclusion of these subjects from the longitudinal analysis shown in Figure 1 had no substantial effect on the calculated duration of serum antibody responses (Table 2 of the Supplementary Appendix). Moreover, although reexposure to the same or a serologically cross-reactive virus may boost antibody titers, these data with regard to vaccinia, measles, mumps, and rubella indicate that repetitive environmental exposures and infections are not absolutely required for maintaining long-term antiviral antibody responses.
Epstein–Barr Virus and Varicella–Zoster Virus
In contrast to acute viral infections, chronic and latent viral infections may either persist or be reactivated from latency, thereby “boosting” immune responses in the infected person. Antibody titers were determined for two latent herpesviruses, Epstein–Barr virus and varicella–zoster virus. A total of 37 of the 45 subjects (82%) were seropositive for Epstein–Barr virus, with seroconversion in 1 subject occurring during the observation period (Fig. 1E in the Supplementary Appendix). Four seropositive subjects had antibody titers that spiked during observation, indicating that reactivation or reexposure events had occurred, but at a relatively low rate (0.6 event per 100 person-years). Humoral immunity against Epstein–Barr virus (Figure 1E) showed no significant decrease (P=0.99) and is likely to be maintained for life (estimated half-life, 11,552 years; 95% CI, 63 to infinity).
Unlike antibody responses to Epstein–Barr virus, antibody responses to varicella–zoster virus showed frequent fluctuations (Fig. 1F in the Supplementary Appendix). All 45 subjects were seropositive for varicella–zoster virus, and 10 of the 45 subjects (22%) had antibody spikes (1.6 events per 100 person-years). Two subjects described an episode of shingles at or near the time of the observed spike in antibody responses to varicella–zoster virus, one subject may have been exposed to recently vaccinated children, six subjects do not recall having shingles or any known exposure to patients with varicella–zoster virus, and information was not available for one subject. Immunity (Figure 1F) decreased slowly, with an estimated half-life of 50 years (95% CI, 30 to 153; P=0.005). Thus, although the infection is latent with evidence of the most frequent reexposure and reactivation events, varicella–zoster virus induced the most short-lived antibody response of the viruses we examined.
Tetanus and Diphtheria
Tetanus and diphtheria vaccination has been recommended since the 1940s, primarily with the combined tetanus–diphtheria toxoid vaccine for adults. This recommendation has resulted in a sharp decrease in the incidence of both diseases18 and prolonged maintenance of antibody titers (Figure 1G and 1H). A titer of more than 0.01 IU of antitetanus antibodies per milliliter is considered to be protective.25 ELISA titers of more than 0.16 IU per milliliter correlate well with neutralizing activity; a titer of 0.16 IU per milliliter is the lowest level reliably detected by means of ELISA26 and is similar to our detection limit of 0.15 IU per milliliter (200 ELISA units). Protective antitetanus responses (Fig. 1G in the Supplementary Appendix) were clearly identified in 42 of the 45 subjects (93%), but this response rate may not reflect the true number of protected persons, since 0.01 IU is below the limit of detection by ELISA. Frequent tetanus boosters resulted in 31 instances of an antibody spike in 27 subjects (4.9 events per 100 person-years) (Fig. 1G in the Supplementary Appendix). Tetanus-specific antibodies decreased rapidly, with an estimated half-life of 11 years (95% CI, 10 to 14; P<0.001), which is similar to the decrease shown in a model reported more than 40 years ago.27
To determine whether the rapid antibody decay observed with tetanus held true for other protein antigens, we measured immunity against diphtheria (Figure 1H). Antidiphtheria antibody titers of more than 0.01 IU per milliliter are considered to be protective,28 and in 40 of the 45 subjects (89%) diphtheria-specific antibodies remained above our detection limit (200 ELISA units, or 0.04 IU per milliliter) (Fig. 1H in the Supplementary Appendix). It is possible that the remaining five subjects also had sustained protective antidiphtheria immunity but that it could not be definitively measured in these studies. Diphtheria-specific antibody spikes were observed, typically in parallel to responses against tetanus, as expected because of the combined tetanus and diphtheria formulation recommended for adult vaccination. An analysis of diphtheria-specific antibodies indicated an estimated half-life of 19 years (95% CI, 14 to 33; P<0.001). These results suggest that antibody maintenance is greatly influenced by the nature of the antigen, with these proteins eliciting quantitatively shorter antibody responses than those observed after viral infection.
Antibody Maintenance in Individual Subjects
One model of antibody maintenance predicts that long-term responses are maintained by non–antigen-specific stimulation, also referred to as “bystander activation” of memory B cells during antigenically unrelated infections.3,8,29 To determine the potential effects of heterologous infection and vaccination, we measured humoral responses to eight antigens in four subjects followed longitudinally for more than 25 years and at weekly intervals after smallpox vaccination (Figure 2Figure 2
Longitudinal Analysis of Serum Antibody Titers in Representative Subjects.). Common immunologic events, including tetanus and diphtheria booster immunization (in Subjects 1 through 4), Epstein–Barr virus seroconversion (in Subject 2), and varicella–zoster virus reexposure or reactivation (in Subject 4), occurred during the period of observation but showed little effect on other antigen-specific antibody responses. After a defined infection with vaccinia (i.e., booster smallpox vaccination), there was little or no alteration in antibody responses to seven other antigens (<6% average change) (Figure 2), despite vaccinia-specific antibody responses that increased by approximately 4000% at the peak of the response. These results are consistent with those in six subjects who received booster smallpox vaccination and two subjects who received primary smallpox vaccination and later received either live yellow-fever vaccination or MMR vaccination (data not shown). Together, these findings suggest that nonspecific bystander activation is an unlikely mechanism in the maintenance of long-term antibody responses.Individual variations in antibody maintenance (Figure 1) indicated that although the antigen itself plays an important role, it is not the sole factor determining the longevity of antibody responses. The findings in Subject 1 (Figure 2A) were largely representative of those in the overall cohort, with no measurable decrease in measles-specific antibodies and short-lived tetanus-specific and diphtheria-specific responses (estimated half-life, 14 and 12 years, respectively). Subject 2 (Figure 2B) had a similar pattern, with no decrease in measles-specific antibodies, whereas tetanus and diphtheria responses had half-lives estimated at 13 and 11 years, respectively. Subject 3 (Figure 2C) had a measles-specific antibody response that underwent a slow but measurable decrease (estimated half-life, 68 years), with tetanus antibodies showing the most rapid rate of decrease (estimated half-life, 8 years). Diphtheria-specific antibody titers did not decrease over the course of two decades, in sharp contrast to tetanus-specific antibody titers. The findings in Subject 4 (Figure 2D) are particularly intriguing because, with the exception of antibodies against Epstein–Barr virus (which showed no evidence of a decrease), all antibody responses decreased at relatively similar rates (estimated half-life, 14 to 31 years). Thus, the antigen, as well as one or more currently unknown host-specific factors, has a role in determining the duration of antibody-response patterns.
B-Cell Memory and Association with Antibody Levels
Plasma cells either maintain antibody levels independently30-32 or may require replenishment by the proliferation and differentiation of memory B cells. A requirement for all memory B-cell–dependent theories of antibody maintenance is that a correlation must exist between memory B-cell levels and antibody levels.3,8,29 With the use of a limiting-dilution analysis,13 we found that memory B cells in the circulation were remarkably long-lived (Figure 3AFigure 3
Relationship between the Number of Memory B Cells, Age, and Serum Antibody Levels.). Previous studies have shown that within 1 month after vaccination, memory B-cell numbers in the circulation are representative of the memory B-cell frequencies observed in other lymphoid compartments such as the spleen.33 We next compared memory B-cell frequencies with their corresponding serum antibody titers for eight antigens. A significant correlation between memory B-cell levels and antibody levels was observed after acute infection with measles, mumps, and rubella but not vaccinia (Table 3Table 3
Comparison of Memory B-Cell Frequencies and Serum Antibody Titers.). There was also no significant correlation between memory B cells and antibodies against varicella–zoster virus or Epstein–Barr virus (viruses that maintain latent reservoirs) or for the tetanus–diphtheria vaccine antigens (Table 3). The strength of the correlation varied widely among antigens, suggesting that memory B-cell frequencies were a poor predictor of serum antibody levels (Figure 3B). For example, only 3% of the variability in antibody levels against tetanus could be explained by memory B-cell frequencies (R2=0.03). This finding suggests that memory B-cell–dependent replenishment of short-lived plasma cells is not likely to be a global mechanism for antibody maintenance.Discussion
We investigated the longitudinal maintenance of antibody responses to eight antigens over a period of up to 26 years. Antibody responses after live viral infections had half-lives of 50 years or more, with many showing no measurable decrease. In contrast, responses to nonreplicating protein antigens (tetanus and diphtheria) decreased at a relatively rapid pace (estimated half-lives, 11 to 19 years), suggesting that within a particular person, antigen-specific mechanisms play a substantial role in determining the duration of humoral immunity.
On average, subjects were 52 years of age at the conclusion of the study, and most had contracted natural measles, mumps, or rubella infections during childhood. It is unknown whether vaccine-induced immunity is as long-lived as that induced by natural infection. Although the titers of vaccine-induced antibody responses appear to be lower than those reached after natural infection (data not shown), a longitudinal analysis of immunity against measles, mumps, and rubella suggests that serologic memory may be similar to natural infection (Supplementary Appendix). However, this result is based on a very small sample (two to five subjects), and further studies on antibody maintenance will be required before statistically meaningful comparisons can be made. This information is particularly important in contemporary populations in which asymptomatic reboosting of immunity by circulating natural or wild-type viruses appears to be relatively rare.
Two principal mechanisms for maintaining long-term humoral immunity have been proposed: memory B-cell–dependent antibody production by short-lived plasma cells and memory B-cell–independent antibody production by long-lived plasma cells.3-10 In memory B-cell–dependent models, memory B cells divide and differentiate into plasma cells after stimulation by persistent antigen, reinfection, cross-reactive antigens, or non–antigen-specific polyclonal activation. If polyclonal memory B-cell activation is the key to antibody maintenance,29 then the duration of antibody production should be the same, regardless of antigen specificity.
Moreover, hypotheses of memory B-cell dependence require that after each infection, a correlation between memory B cells — or at least peripheral memory B cells29 — and antibodies be maintained. This correlation has been noted in some instances35,36 but not in others.37,38 We found an association between memory B-cell levels and antibody levels for measles, mumps, and rubella but not for vaccinia, varicella–zoster virus, Epstein–Barr virus, tetanus, or diphtheria (Table 3). The associations with these first three viruses may reflect an epiphenomenon in which serum antibody levels and memory B cells are equally stable but independently maintained, without representing a direct cause-and-effect relationship.
If plasma-cell maintenance is memory B-cell–dependent, then booster vaccination or reinfection may reveal whether a cause-and-effect relationship is involved, because the association will continue to be maintained. However, if memory B cells and plasma cells are independently regulated, then multiple reexposures to antigens may cause divergence between memory B-cell levels and antibody levels. In support of this second hypothesis, antigens with the highest rates of boosting through vaccination or latent viral infection coincidentally showed the weakest association between memory B-cell titers and antibody titers (Table 3). Similarly, another study showed that multiple tetanus immunizations lead to a sustained increase in memory B cells without a concomitant increase in long-term antibody titers, indicating that memory B cells and antibody production are independently regulated.38
Long-lived plasma cells are another mechanism for maintaining serum antibodies. The existence of long-lived plasma cells was first shown in mice,30-32 and preliminary studies in human subjects depleted of CD20+ B cells provide further support for the long-lived plasma-cell hypothesis.39,40
Our cohort had seroprevalence rates of 82 to 100%, depending on the antigen being tested. All subjects had a response to at least five of the eight antigens tested; thus, no subjects had an overt inability to mount long-lasting antibody responses. Participants in this study were in good health overall, although certain persons had coexisting conditions such as high blood pressure or asthma (Table 1 in the Supplementary Appendix). Unrecognized confounders, including immune deficiencies and ablative treatments such as chemotherapy, may affect humoral immunity, resulting in more rapidly decaying antibody responses than those that we observed. Likewise, our findings are based on T-cell–dependent antibody responses, and the mechanisms involved in antibody persistence may differ for humoral immunity against T-cell–independent antigens, which is often short-lived. Greater insight into the factors that determine the duration of specific antibody responses will be important for future vaccine design, as well as for determining the timing of booster vaccinations required to sustain protective levels of immunity.
Supported by grants (PO1 AG023664, RR000163, RR000334, and RR024140) from the Public Health Service.
No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
We thank the study subjects for their time and their participation in this study, J. Hall and D. Hess for obtaining serum samples, S. Carter for aid with organizing serum samples, and M. Lewis and E. Hammarlund for blood collection and processing.
Source Information
From the Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton (I.J.A., M.K.S.); and the Department of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Division of Biostatistics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland (N.E.C.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Slifka at the Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 505 NW 185th Ave., Beaverton, OR 97006, or at slifkam@ohsu.edu.
- References
References
1
Ahmed R ,Gray D . Immunological memory and protective immunity: understanding their relation. Science 1996;272:54-60
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline2
Slifka MK ,Ahmed R . Long-term humoral immunity against viruses: revisiting the issue of plasma cell longevity. Trends Microbiol 1996;4:394-400
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline3
Amanna IJ ,Slifka MK ,Crotty S . Immunity and immunological memory following smallpox vaccination. Immunol Rev 2006;211:320-337
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline4
Zinkernagel RM ,Bachmann MF ,Kundig TE ,Oehen S ,Pirchat H ,Hengartner H . On immunological memory. Annu Rev Immunol 1996;14:333-367
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline5
Welsh RM ,Selin LK ,Szomolanyi-Tsuda E . Immunological memory to viral infections. Annu Rev Immunol 2004;22:711-743
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline6
O'Connor BP ,Gleeson MW ,Noelle RJ ,Erickson LD . The rise and fall of long-lived humoral immunity: terminal differentiation of plasma cells in health and disease. Immunol Rev 2003;194:61-76
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline7
Manz RA ,Hauser AE ,Hiepe F ,Radbruch A . Maintenance of serum antibody levels. Annu Rev Immunol 2005;23:367-386
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline8
Traggiai E ,Puzone R ,Lanzavecchia A . Antigen dependent and independent mechanisms that sustain serum antibody levels. Vaccine 2003;21:Suppl 2:S35-S37
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline9
Radbruch A ,Muehlinghaus G ,Luger EO , et al. Competence and competition: the challenge of becoming a long-lived plasma cell. Nat Rev Immunol 2006;6:741-750
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline10
McHeyzer-Williams LJ ,Malherbe LP ,McHeyzer-Williams MG . Checkpoints in memory B-cell evolution. Immunol Rev 2006;211:255-268
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline11
Hammarlund E ,Lewis MW ,Hansen SG , et al. Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination. Nat Med 2003;9:1131-1137
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline12
Slifka MK ,Ahmed R . Long-term antibody production is sustained by antibody secreting cells in the bone marrow following acute viral infection. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1996;797:166-176
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline13
Amanna IJ ,Slifka MK . Quantitation of rare memory B cell populations by two independent and complementary approaches. J Immunol Methods 2006;317:175-185
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline14
Bojlen K ,Scheibel I . The duration of immunity following diphtheria vaccination. Dan Med Bull 1955;2:70-73
Medline15
Herrmann KL ,Halstead SB ,Wiebenga NH . Rubella antibody persistence after immunization. JAMA 1982;247:193-196
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline16
Simonsen O ,Bentzon MW ,Kjeldsen K ,Venborg HA ,Heron I . Evaluation of vaccination requirements to secure continuous antitoxin immunity to tetanus. Vaccine 1987;5:115-122
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline17
Simonsen O ,Kristiansen M ,Aggerbeck H ,Hau C ,Heron I . Fall-off in immunity following diphtheria revaccination -- an 8 year follow-up study. APMIS 1996;104:921-925
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline18
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases. 9th ed. Washington, DC: Public Health Foundation, 2006.
19
Hopkins RJ ,Kramer WG ,Blackwelder WC , et al. Safety and pharmacokinetic evaluation of intravenous vaccinia immune globulin in healthy volunteers. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39:759-766
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline20
Monath TP ,Nichols R ,Archambault WT , et al. Comparative safety and immunogenicity of two yellow fever 17D vaccines (ARILVAX and YF-VAX) in a phase III multicenter, double-blind clinical trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002;66:533-541
Web of Science | Medline21
Mack TM ,Noble J Jr ,Thomas DB . A prospective study of serum antibody and protection against smallpox. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1972;21:214-218
Web of Science | Medline22
Parker AA ,Staggs W ,Dayan GH , et al. Implications of a 2005 measles outbreak in Indiana for sustained elimination of measles in the United States. N Engl J Med 2006;355:447-455[Erratum, N Engl J Med 2006;355:1184.]
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline23
Chen RT ,Markowitz LE ,Albrecht P , et al. Measles antibody: reevaluation of protective titers. J Infect Dis 1990;162:1036-1042
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline24
Skendzel LP . Rubella immunity: defining the level of protective antibody. Am J Clin Pathol 1996;106:170-174
Web of Science | Medline25
Wolters KL ,Dehmel H . Abschliessende untersuchungen uber die Tetanus Prophylaxe durch active Immunisierung. Zeitschrift fur Hyeitschrift 1942;124:326-33226
Simonsen O ,Bentzon MW ,Heron I . ELISA for the routine determination of antitoxic immunity to tetanus. J Biol Stand 1986;14:231-239
CrossRef | Medline27
Gottlieb S ,McLaughlin FX ,Levine L ,Latham WC ,Edsall G . Long-term immunity to tetanus -- a statistical evaluation and its clinical implications. Am J Public Health Nations Health 1964;54:961-971
CrossRef | Medline28
Ipsen J . Circulating antitoxin at the onset of diphtheria in 425 patients. J Immunol 1946;54:325-347
Web of Science | Medline29
Bernasconi NL ,Traggiai E ,Lanzavecchia A . Maintenance of serological memory by polyclonal activation of human memory B cells. Science 2002;298:2199-2202
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline30
Slifka MK. Mechanisms of antiviral immunity: studies on recombinant Listeria monocytogenes as a vaccine for inducing protective CTL memory and analysis of long-term antibody production after acute LCMV infection. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 1996 (dissertation).
31
Manz RA ,Thiel A ,Radbruch A . Lifetime of plasma cells in the bone marrow. Nature 1997;388:133-134
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline32
Slifka MK ,Antia R ,Whitmire JK ,Ahmed R . Humoral immunity due to long-lived plasma cells. Immunity 1998;8:363-372
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline33
Blink EJ ,Light A ,Kallies A ,Nutt SL ,Hodgkin PD ,Tarlinton DM . Early appearance of germinal center-derived memory B cells and plasma cells in blood after primary immunization. J Exp Med 2005;201:545-554
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline34
Bender R ,Lange S . Adjusting for multiple testing -- when and how? J Clin Epidemiol 2001;54:343-349
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline35
Crotty S ,Felgner P ,Davies H ,Glidewell J ,Villarreal L ,Ahmed R . Cutting edge: long-term B cell memory in humans after smallpox vaccination. J Immunol 2003;171:4969-4973
Web of Science | Medline36
Quinn CP ,Dull PM ,Semenova V , et al. Immune responses to Bacillus anthracis protective antigen in patients with bioterrorism-related cutaneous or inhalation anthrax. J Infect Dis 2004;190:1228-1236
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline37
Leyendeckers H ,Odendahl M ,Lohndorf A , et al. Correlation analysis between frequencies of circulating antigen-specific IgG-bearing memory B cells and serum titers of antigen-specific IgG. Eur J Immunol 1999;29:1406-1417
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline38
Nanan R ,Heinrich D ,Frosch M ,Kreth HW . Acute and long-term effects of booster immunisation on frequencies of antigen-specific memory B-lymphocytes. Vaccine 2001;20:498-504
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline39
Cambridge G ,Leandro MJ ,Edwards JC , et al. Serologic changes following B lymphocyte depletion therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:2146-2154
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline40
Edwards JC ,Szczepanski L ,Szechinski J , et al. Efficacy of B-cell-targeted therapy with rituximab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2004;350:2572-2581
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline
- Citing Articles (117)
Citing Articles
1
D. Frasca, A. Diaz, M. Romero, M. Phillips, N. V. Mendez, A. M. Landin, B. B. Blomberg. (2012) Unique biomarkers for B-cell function predict the serum response to pandemic H1N1 influenza vaccine. International Immunology
CrossRef2
Susan L. Swain, K. Kai McKinstry, Tara M. Strutt. (2012) Expanding roles for CD4+ T cells in immunity to viruses. Nature Reviews Immunology
CrossRef3
Melissa E. Dubois, Erika Hammarlund, Mark K. Slifka. (2012) Optimization of Peptide-Based ELISA for Serological Diagnostics: A Retrospective Study of Human Monkeypox Infection. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases120104061731004
CrossRef4
Anu Kantele. (2012) Persistence of Diarrheal Pathogens Is Associated with Continued Recruitment of Plasmablasts in the Circulation. Clinical and Developmental Immunology 2012, 1-8
CrossRef5
Per Johan Klasse, Rogier W. Sanders, Andrea Cerutti, John P. Moore. (2012) How Can HIV-Type-1-Env Immunogenicity Be Improved to Facilitate Antibody-Based Vaccine Development?. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 28:1, 1-15
CrossRef6
Hiroto Inaba, Christine M. Hartford, Deqing Pei, Meredith J. Posner, Jie Yang, Randall T. Hayden, Ashok Srinivasan, Brandon M. Triplett, Jon A. McCulllers, Ching-Hon Pui, Wing Leung. (2012) Longitudinal analysis of antibody response to immunization in paediatric survivors after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. British Journal of Haematology 156:1, 109-117
CrossRef7
Greta E. Weiss, Francis M. Ndungu, Noah McKittrick, Shanping Li, Domtila Kimani, Peter D. Crompton, Kevin Marsh, Susan K. Pierce. (2012) High efficiency human memory B cell assay and its application to studying Plasmodium falciparum-specific memory B cells in natural infections. Journal of Immunological Methods 375:1-2, 68-74
CrossRef8
William J Moss, Diane E Griffin. (2012) Measles. The Lancet 379:9811, 153-164
CrossRef9
Mark D. Pescovitz, Troy R. Torgerson, Hans D. Ochs, Elizabeth Ocheltree, Paula McGee, Heidi Krause-Steinrauf, John M. Lachin, Jennifer Canniff, Carla Greenbaum, Kevan C. Herold, Jay S. Skyler, Adriana Weinberg. (2011) Effect of rituximab on human in vivo antibody immune responses. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 128:6, 1295-1302.e5
CrossRef10
Stuart G. Tangye. (2011) Staying alive: regulation of plasma cell survival. Trends in Immunology 32:12, 595-602
CrossRef11
J. F. Scheid, H. Mouquet, J. Kofer, S. Yurasov, M. C. Nussenzweig, H. Wardemann. (2011) Differential regulation of self-reactivity discriminates between IgG+ human circulating memory B cells and bone marrow plasma cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108:44, 18044-18048
CrossRef12
Amaya I. Wolf, Krystyna Mozdzanowska, William J. Quinn, Michele Metzgar, Katie L. Williams, Andrew J. Caton, Eric Meffre, Richard J. Bram, Loren D. Erickson, David Allman, Michael P. Cancro, Jan Erikson. (2011) Protective antiviral antibody responses in a mouse model of influenza virus infection require TACI. Journal of Clinical Investigation 121:10, 3954-3964
CrossRef13
Sarah E. Church, Shawn M. Jensen, Christopher G. Twitty, Keith Bahjat, Hong-Ming Hu, Walter J. Urba, Bernard A. Fox. (2011) Multiple Vaccinations. The Cancer Journal 17:5, 379-396
CrossRef14
Pierre Van Damme, Peter McIntyre, Emmanuel Grimprel, Sherine Kuriyakose, Jeanne-Marie Jacquet, Karin Hardt, Marc Messier, Olivier Van Der Meeren. (2011) Immunogenicity of the reduced-antigen-content dTpa vaccine (Boostrix®) in adults 55 years of age and over: A sub-analysis of four trials. Vaccine 29:35, 5932-5939
CrossRef15
B. Franz, K. F. May, G. Dranoff, K. Wucherpfennig. (2011) Ex vivo characterization and isolation of rare memory B cells with antigen tetramers. Blood 118:2, 348-357
CrossRef16
C. H. Rozanski, R. Arens, L. M. Carlson, J. Nair, L. H. Boise, A. A. Chanan-Khan, S. P. Schoenberger, K. P. Lee. (2011) Sustained antibody responses depend on CD28 function in bone marrow-resident plasma cells. Journal of Experimental Medicine 208:7, 1435-1446
CrossRef17
Jean L Scholz, Eline T Luning Prak, Michael P Cancro. (2011) Targeting the BLyS family in autoimmunity: a tale of mouse and man. Clinical Investigation 1:7, 951-967
CrossRef18
Kevin Kunz, Sven Reiche, Yamen Dwai, Christiane Cordes, Ivanka Krznaric, Bianca M Bussmann, Christian Jassoy. (2011) A Broad Spectrum of Functional HIV-Specific Memory B Cells in the Blood of Infected Individuals With High CD4+ T-Cell Counts. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 57:3, e56-e58
CrossRef19
R. Carlin Walsh, Paul Brailey, Alin Girnita, Rita R. Alloway, Adele Rike Shields, Garth E. Wall, Basma H. Sadaka, Michael Cardi, Amit Tevar, Amit Govil, Gautham Mogilishetty, Prabir Roy-Chaudhury, E. Steve Woodle. (2011) Early and Late Acute Antibody-Mediated Rejection Differ Immunologically and in Response to Proteasome Inhibition. Transplantation 91:11, 1218-1226
CrossRef20
Philippe Moris, Robbert Most, Isabel Leroux-Roels, Frédéric Clement, Mamadou Dramé, Emmanuel Hanon, Geert G. Leroux-Roels, Marcelle Mechelen. (2011) H5N1 Influenza Vaccine Formulated with AS03A Induces Strong Cross-Reactive and Polyfunctional CD4 T-Cell Responses. Journal of Clinical Immunology 31:3, 443-454
CrossRef21
Davide Corti, Federica Sallusto, Antonio Lanzavecchia. (2011) High throughput cellular screens to interrogate the human T and B cell repertoires. Current Opinion in Immunology 23:3, 430-435
CrossRef22
T. S. HO, S. M. WANG, L. R. WANG, C. C. LIU. (2011) Changes in measles seroepidemiology of healthcare workers in southern Taiwan. Epidemiology and Infection1-6
CrossRef23
Egidio Brocca-Cofano, Katherine McKinnon, Thorsten Demberg, David Venzon, Rachmat Hidajat, Peng Xiao, Mara Daltabuit-Test, L. Jean Patterson, Marjorie Robert-Guroff. (2011) Vaccine-elicited SIV and HIV envelope-specific IgA and IgG memory B cells in rhesus macaque peripheral blood correlate with functional antibody responses and reduced viremia. Vaccine 29:17, 3310-3319
CrossRef24
Sandra Morel, Philippe Denoël, Fabrice Godfroid, Caroline Cortvrindt, Nathalie Vanderheyde, Jan Poolman. (2011) Induction of Bordetella pertussis-specific immune memory by DTPa vaccines. Vaccine 29:18, 3449-3455
CrossRef25
K. A. Pape, J. J. Taylor, R. W. Maul, P. J. Gearhart, M. K. Jenkins. (2011) Different B Cell Populations Mediate Early and Late Memory During an Endogenous Immune Response. Science 331:6021, 1203-1207
CrossRef26
Falk Hiepe, Thomas Dörner, Anja E. Hauser, Bimba F. Hoyer, Henrik Mei, Andreas Radbruch. (2011) Long-lived autoreactive plasma cells drive persistent autoimmune inflammation. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 7:3, 170-178
CrossRef27
E. Leuridan, N. Hens, V. Hutse, M. Aerts, P. Van Damme. (2011) Kinetics of maternal antibodies against rubella and varicella in infants. Vaccine 29:11, 2222-2226
CrossRef28
Ian J. Amanna, Mark K. Slifka. (2011) Contributions of humoral and cellular immunity to vaccine-induced protection in humans. Virology 411:2, 206-215
CrossRef29
Christina E. Zielinski, Davide Corti, Federico Mele, Dora Pinto, Antonio Lanzavecchia, Federica Sallusto. (2011) Dissecting the human immunologic memory for pathogens. Immunological Reviews 240:1, 40-51
CrossRef30
W.-H. Lin, D. E. Griffin, P. A. Rota, M. Papania, S. P. Cape, D. Bennett, B. Quinn, R. E. Sievers, C. Shermer, K. Powell, R. J. Adams, S. Godin, S. Winston. (2011) Successful respiratory immunization with dry powder live-attenuated measles virus vaccine in rhesus macaques. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108:7, 2987-2992
CrossRef31
Barton F. Haynes, M. Anthony Moody, Hua-Xin Liao, Laurent Verkoczy, Georgia D. Tomaras. (2011) B cell responses to HIV-1 infection and vaccination: pathways to preventing infection. Trends in Molecular Medicine 17:2, 108-116
CrossRef32
Lotte H. Hendrikx, Kemal Öztürk, Lia G.H. de Rond, Reinier H. Veenhoven, Elisabeth A.M. Sanders, Guy A.M. Berbers, Anne-Marie Buisman. (2011) Identifying long-term memory B-cells in vaccinated children despite waning antibody levels specific for Bordetella pertussis proteins. Vaccine 29:7, 1431-1437
CrossRef33
P. Allacher, C. K. Baumgartner, A. G. Pordes, R. U. Ahmad, H. P. Schwarz, B. M. Reipert. (2011) Stimulation and inhibition of FVIII-specific memory B-cell responses by CpG-B (ODN 1826), a ligand for Toll-like receptor 9. Blood 117:1, 259-267
CrossRef34
Kaitlin Rainwater-Lovett, William J Moss. (2011) Immunologic basis for revaccination of HIV-infected children receiving HAART. Future Virology 6:1, 59-71
CrossRef35
Jason Ho, Susan Moir, Wei Wang, Jacqueline G Posada, Wenjuan Gu, Muhammad T Rehman, Robin Dewar, Colin Kovacs, Michael C Sneller, Tae-Wook Chun, Dean A Follmann, Anthony S Fauci. (2011) Enhancing effects of adjuvanted 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza A vaccine on memory B-cell responses in HIV-infected individuals. AIDS 25:3, 295-302
CrossRef36
Lotte H. Hendrikx, Lia. G.H. de Rond, Kemal Öztürk, Reinier H. Veenhoven, Elisabeth A.M. Sanders, Guy A.M. Berbers, Anne-Marie Buisman. (2011) Impact of infant and preschool pertussis vaccinations on memory B-cell responses in children at 4 years of age. Vaccine
CrossRef37
Bin Lu, Wenbo Yu, Xiaoxing Huang, Haibo Wang, Li Liu, Zhiwei Chen. (2011) Mucosal Immunization Induces a Higher Level of Lasting Neutralizing Antibody Response in Mice by a Replication-Competent Smallpox Vaccine: Vaccinia Tiantan Strain. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2011, 1-9
CrossRef38
Biliang Hu, April Tai, Pin Wang. (2011) Immunization delivered by lentiviral vectors for cancer and infectious diseases. Immunological Reviews 239:1, 45-61
CrossRef39
Matthew J. Everly, Paul I. Terasaki, Judy Hopfield, Hargovind L. Trivedi, Hugo Kaneku. (2010) Protective Immunity Remains Intact After Antibody Removal by Means of Proteasome Inhibition. Transplantation 90:12, 1493-1498
CrossRef40
Nils Lycke. (2010) Is the choice of vaccine adjuvant critical for long-term memory development?. Expert Review of Vaccines 9:12, 1357-1361
CrossRef41
Kulkanya Chokephaibulkit, Chukiat Sirivichayakul, Usa Thisyakorn, Arunee Sabchareon, Chitsanu Pancharoen, Alain Bouckenooghe, Sophia Gailhardou, Mark Boaz, Emmanuel Feroldi. (2010) Safety and Immunogenicity of a Single Administration of Live-attenuated Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine in Previously Primed 2- to 5-year-olds and Naive 12- to 24-month-olds. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 29:12, 1111-1117
CrossRef42
N Lycke, M Bemark. (2010) Mucosal adjuvants and long-term memory development with special focus on CTA1-DD and other ADP-ribosylating toxins. Mucosal Immunology 3:6, 556-566
CrossRef43
Daniela Frasca, Alain Diaz, Maria Romero, Ana Marie Landin, Mitch Phillips, Suzanne C. Lechner, John G. Ryan, Bonnie B. Blomberg. (2010) Intrinsic defects in B cell response to seasonal influenza vaccination in elderly humans. Vaccine 28:51, 8077-8084
CrossRef44
Giuseppe Portella, Claudio Galli. (2010) Multicentric evaluation of two chemiluminescent immunoassays for IgG and IgM antibodies towards Rubella virus. Journal of Clinical Virology 49:2, 105-110
CrossRef45
Tomohiro Kurosaki, Yuichi Aiba, Kohei Kometani, Saya Moriyama, Yoshimasa Takahashi. (2010) Unique properties of memory B cells of different isotypes. Immunological Reviews 237:1, 104-116
CrossRef46
Rachel M. Stenger, Mieke Smits, Betsy Kuipers, Jacqueline van Gaans-van den Brink, Martien Poelen, Claire J.P. Boog, Cécile A.C.M. van Els. (2010) Impaired long-term maintenance and function of Bordetella pertussis specific B cell memory. Vaccine 28:40, 6637-6646
CrossRef47
Taketoshi Yoshida, Henrik Mei, Thomas Dörner, Falk Hiepe, Andreas Radbruch, Simon Fillatreau, Bimba F. Hoyer. (2010) Memory B and memory plasma cells. Immunological Reviews 237:1, 117-139
CrossRef48
William A. Langley, Konrad C. Bradley, Zhu-Nan Li, Ganesh R. Talekar, Summer E. Galloway, David A. Steinhauer. (2010) The effects of preexisting immunity to influenza on responses to influenza vectors in mice. Vaccine 28:38, 6305-6313
CrossRef49
Ian J. Amanna, Mark K. Slifka. (2010) Mechanisms that determine plasma cell lifespan and the duration of humoral immunity. Immunological Reviews 236:1, 125-138
CrossRef50
Raul Elgueta, Victor C. De Vries, Randolph J. Noelle. (2010) The immortality of humoral immunity. Immunological Reviews 236:1, 139-150
CrossRef51
George K Lewis. (2010) Challenges of antibody-mediated protection against HIV-1. Expert Review of Vaccines 9:7, 683-687
CrossRef52
Alberto Cagigi, Anna Nilsson, Simone Pensieroso, Francesca Chiodi. (2010) Dysfunctional B-cell responses during HIV-1 infection: implication for influenza vaccination and highly active antiretroviral therapy. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 10:7, 499-503
CrossRef53
Geraldine Blanchard-Rohner, Grazia Galli, Elizabeth A. Clutterbuck, Andrew J. Pollard. (2010) Comparison of a limiting dilution assay and ELISpot for detection of memory B-cells before and after immunisation with a protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine in children. Journal of Immunological Methods 358:1-2, 46-55
CrossRef54
Morton Scheinberg, Luis Sergio Guedes-Barbosa, Cristovao Mangueira, Eliane Aparecida Rosseto, Licia Mota, Ana Cristina Oliveira, Rodrigo Aires Lima. (2010) Yellow fever revaccination during infliximab therapy. Arthritis Care & Research 62:6, 896-898
CrossRef55
Corinne Vandermeulen, Lieven Verhoye, Sunil Vaidya, Frédéric Clement, Kevin E. Brown, Karel Hoppenbrouwers, Geert Leroux-Roels. (2010) Detection of mumps virus-specific memory B cells by transfer of peripheral blood mononuclear cells into immune-deficient mice. Immunologyno-no
CrossRef56
Bénédicte Puissant-Lubrano, Philippe Bossi, Frederick Gay, Jean-Marc Crance, Olivia Bonduelle, Daniel Garin, François Bricaire, Brigitte Autran, Behazine Combadière. (2010) Control of vaccinia virus skin lesions by long-term-maintained IFN-γ+TNF-α+ effector/memory CD4+ lymphocytes in humans. Journal of Clinical Investigation 120:5, 1636-1644
CrossRef57
Vijay Panchanathan, Geeta Chaudhri, Gunasegaran Karupiah. (2010) Antiviral protection following immunization correlates with humoral but not cell-mediated immunity. Immunology and Cell Biology 88:4, 461-467
CrossRef58
Jessica L. Halliley, Shuya Kyu, James J. Kobie, Edward E. Walsh, Ann R. Falsey, Troy D. Randall, John Treanor, Changyong Feng, Ignacio Sanz, F. Eun-Hyung Lee. (2010) Peak frequencies of circulating human influenza-specific antibody secreting cells correlate with serum antibody response after immunization. Vaccine 28:20, 3582-3587
CrossRef59
John R. Mascola, David C. Montefiori. (2010) The Role of Antibodies in HIV Vaccines. Annual Review of Immunology 28:1, 413-444
CrossRef60
MR Olson, BE Russ, PC Doherty, SJ Turner, J Stambas. (2010) Influenza A virus-specific CD8 + T-cell responses: from induction to function. Future Virology 5:2, 175-183
CrossRef61
Maren Henneken, Nicolas Burdin, Einar Thoroddsen, Sigurveig Th. Sigurdardottir, Emanuelle Trannoy, Ingileif Jonsdottir. (2010) Meningococcal serogroup C polysaccharide specific memory B cells, directly enumerated by labeled polysaccharide, are not affected by age at vaccination. Vaccine 28:9, 2097-2103
CrossRef62
Ilana Kaufman, Yolanda Braun Moscovici, Yair Abudi, Denit Sofer, Ella Mendelson, Alexandra Balbir-Gurman, Dan Caspi, Ori Elkayam. (2010) The effect of infliximab on antiviral antibody profiles in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology International 30:3, 325-329
CrossRef63
M. Perez-Andres, B. Paiva, W. G. Nieto, A. Caraux, A. Schmitz, J. Almeida, R. F. Vogt, G. E. Marti, A. C. Rawstron, M. C. Van Zelm, J. J. M. Van Dongen, H. E. Johnsen, B. Klein, A. Orfao, . (2010) Human peripheral blood B-cell compartments: A crossroad in B-cell traffic. Cytometry Part B: Clinical Cytometry 78B:S1, S47-S60
CrossRef64
E. Vidor. (2010) Evaluation of the Persistence of Vaccine-Induced Protection with Human Vaccines. Journal of Comparative Pathology 142, S96-S101
CrossRef65
Stacie N. Woolard, Uday Kumaraguru. (2010) Viral Vaccines and CTL Response. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2010, 1-7
CrossRef66
Kathleen Selleng, Antje Schütt, Sixten Selleng, Theodore E. Warkentin, Andreas Greinacher. (2010) Studies of the antiâplatelet factor 4/heparin immune response: adapting the enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay for detection of memory B cells against complex antigens. Transfusion 50:1, 32-39
CrossRef67
Florence Deauvieau, Sebastien Dussurgey, Daniele Rossignol, Aymeric de Montfort, Nicolas Burdin, Bruno Guy. (2009) Memory B and T cell responses induced by serotype 4 Streptococcus pneumoniae vaccines: Longitudinal analysis comparing responses elicited by free polysaccharide, conjugate and carrier. Vaccine 28:2, 576-582
CrossRef68
Ross B Fulton, Steven M Varga. (2009) Effects of aging on the adaptive immune response to respiratory virus infections. Aging Health 5:6, 775-787
CrossRef69
Stephen C. Jameson, David Masopust. (2009) Diversity in T Cell Memory: An Embarrassment of Riches. Immunity 31:6, 859-871
CrossRef70
A.M. Buisman, C.G.H. de Rond, K. Öztürk, H.I. ten Hulscher, R.S. van Binnendijk. (2009) Long-term presence of memory B-cells specific for different vaccine components. Vaccine 28:1, 179-186
CrossRef71
Boubacar Traore, Younoussou Koné, Safiatou Doumbo, Didier Doumtabé, Abdramane Traoré, Peter D. Crompton, Marko Mircetic, Chiung-Yu Huang, Kassoum Kayentao, Alassane Dicko, Issaka Sagara, Ruth D. Ellis, Kazutoyo Miura, Agnes Guindo, Louis H. Miller, Ogobara K. Doumbo, Susan K. Pierce. (2009) The TLR9 agonist CpG fails to enhance the acquisition of Plasmodium falciparum-specific memory B cells in semi-immune adults in Mali. Vaccine 27:52, 7299-7303
CrossRef72
M. Taillardet, G. Haffar, P. Mondiere, M.-J. Asensio, H. Gheit, N. Burdin, T. Defrance, L. Genestier. (2009) The thymus-independent immunity conferred by a pneumococcal polysaccharide is mediated by long-lived plasma cells. Blood 114:20, 4432-4440
CrossRef73
Meral Esen, Peter G. Kremsner, Regina Schleucher, Michael Gässler, Egeruan Babatunde Imoukhuede, Nathalie Imbault, Odile Leroy, Søren Jepsen, Birgitte Walther Knudsen, Michael Schumm, Jürgen Knobloch, Michael Theisen, Benjamin Mordmüller. (2009) Safety and immunogenicity of GMZ2 — a MSP3–GLURP fusion protein malaria vaccine candidate. Vaccine 27:49, 6862-6868
CrossRef74
Ian J. Amanna, Mark K. Slifka. (2009) Wanted, dead or alive: New viral vaccines. Antiviral Research 84:2, 119-130
CrossRef75
Marcella Visentini, Valentina Conti, Maria Cagliuso, Francesca Tinti, Giulia Siciliano, Amelia C. Trombetta, Anna Paola Mitterhofer, Massimo Fiorilli, Isabella Quinti. (2009) Regression of systemic lupus erythematosus after development of an acquired Toll-like receptor signaling defect and antibody deficiency. Arthritis & Rheumatism 60:9, 2767-2771
CrossRef76
Vibhu Kanchan, Yogesh K. Katare, Amulya K. Panda. (2009) Memory antibody response from antigen loaded polymer particles and the effect of antigen release kinetics. Biomaterials 30:27, 4763-4776
CrossRef77
Kathleen Selleng, Theodore E. Warkentin, Jo-Ann I. Sheppard, Andreas Greinacher. (2009) Immune mechanisms in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: no evidence for immunoglobulin M anti-idiotype antibodies. Transfusion 49:9, 1812-1818
CrossRef78
Eric J Yager, Hansi J Dean, Deborah Heydenburg Fuller. (2009) Prospects for developing an effective particle-mediated DNA vaccine against influenza. Expert Review of Vaccines 8:9, 1205-1220
CrossRef79
M. J. Benson, R. Elgueta, W. Schpero, M. Molloy, W. Zhang, E. Usherwood, R. J. Noelle. (2009) Distinction of the memory B cell response to cognate antigen versus bystander inflammatory signals. Journal of Experimental Medicine 206:9, 2013-2025
CrossRef80
Flora Castellino, Grazia Galli, Giuseppe Del Giudice, Rino Rappuoli. (2009) Generating memory with vaccination. European Journal of Immunology 39:8, 2100-2105
CrossRef81
Thomas Dörner, Andreas Radbruch, Gerd R. Burmester. (2009) B-cell-directed therapies for autoimmune disease. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 5:8, 433-441
CrossRef82
Arthur Kavanaugh. (2009) Infection prophylaxis in antirheumatic therapy: emphasis on vaccination. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 21:4, 419-424
CrossRef83
H. Mei, T. Dörner. (2009) Translationale Aspekte zur Rolle von B-Zellen bei Autoimmunerkrankungen. Zeitschrift für Rheumatologie 68:5, 364-369
CrossRef84
Vaiva Vezys, Andrew Yates, Kerry A. Casey, Gibson Lanier, Rafi Ahmed, Rustom Antia, David Masopust. (2009) Vezys et al. reply. Nature 459:7247, E4-E4
CrossRef85
Diane L Bolton, Mario Roederer. (2009) Flow cytometry and the future of vaccine development. Expert Review of Vaccines 8:6, 779-789
CrossRef86
Antonio Lanzavecchia, Federica Sallusto. (2009) Human B cell memory. Current Opinion in Immunology 21:3, 298-304
CrossRef87
A. Greinacher, T. Kohlmann, U. Strobel, J.-A. I. Sheppard, T. E. Warkentin. (2009) The temporal profile of the anti-PF4/heparin immune response. Blood 113:20, 4970-4976
CrossRef88
T. E. Warkentin, J.-A. I. Sheppard, J. C. Moore, R. J. Cook, J. G. Kelton. (2009) Studies of the immune response in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 113:20, 4963-4969
CrossRef89
S. Pensieroso, A. Cagigi, P. Palma, A. Nilsson, C. Capponi, E. Freda, S. Bernardi, R. Thorstensson, F. Chiodi, P. Rossi. (2009) From the Cover: Timing of HAART defines the integrity of memory B cells and the longevity of humoral responses in HIV-1 vertically-infected children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:19, 7939-7944
CrossRef90
Dominic F. Kelly, Matthew D. Snape, Kirsten P. Perrett, Elizabeth A. Clutterbuck, Susan Lewis, Geraldine Blanchard Rohner, Meryl Jones, Ly-Mee Yu, Andrew J. Pollard. (2009) Plasma and memory B-cell kinetics in infants following a primary schedule of CRM197-conjugated serogroup C meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Immunology 127:1, 134-143
CrossRef91
Debora Pinna, Davide Corti, David Jarrossay, Federica Sallusto, Antonio Lanzavecchia. (2009) Clonal dissection of the human memory B-cell repertoire following infection and vaccination. European Journal of Immunology 39:5, 1260-1270
CrossRef92
M. D. Stegall, P. G. Dean, J Gloor. (2009) Mechanisms of Alloantibody Production in Sensitized Renal Allograft Recipients. American Journal of Transplantation 9:5, 998-1005
CrossRef93
Toshiaki Ihara. (2009) The strategy for prevention of measles and rubella prevalence with measles–rubella (MR) vaccine in Japan. Vaccine 27:24, 3234-3236
CrossRef94
André Tavares Silva-Fernandes, Carlos Eurico Pires Ferreira Travassos, Jaqueline Maria Siqueira Ferreira, Jônatas Santos Abrahão, Eliseu Soares de Oliveira Rocha, Flávia Viana-Ferreira, João Rodrigues dos Santos, Cláudio Antônio Bonjardim, Paulo César Peregrino Ferreira, Erna Geessien Kroon. (2009) Natural human infections with Vaccinia virus during bovine vaccinia outbreaks. Journal of Clinical Virology 44:4, 308-313
CrossRef95
Megan K.L. MacLeod, Eric T. Clambey, John W. Kappler, Philippa Marrack. (2009) CD4 memory T cells: What are they and what can they do?. Seminars in Immunology 21:2, 53-61
CrossRef96
Jean-Pierre Michel, Christian Chidiac, Beatrix Grubeck-Loebenstein, Robert W. Johnson, Paul Henri Lambert, Stefania Maggi, Robert Moulias, Karl Nicholson, Hans Werner. (2009) Advocating Vaccination of Adults Aged 60 Years and Older in Western Europe:. Rejuvenation Research 12:2, 127-136
CrossRef97
Johannes F. Scheid, Hugo Mouquet, Niklas Feldhahn, Bruce D. Walker, Florencia Pereyra, Emily Cutrell, Michael S. Seaman, John R. Mascola, Richard T. Wyatt, Hedda Wardemann, Michel C. Nussenzweig. (2009) A method for identification of HIV gp140 binding memory B cells in human blood. Journal of Immunological Methods 343:2, 65-67
CrossRef98
H. E. Mei, T. Yoshida, W. Sime, F. Hiepe, K. Thiele, R. A. Manz, A. Radbruch, T. Dorner. (2009) Blood-borne human plasma cells in steady state are derived from mucosal immune responses. Blood 113:11, 2461-2469
CrossRef99
Y. Guan, M. M. Sajadi, R. Kamin-Lewis, T. R. Fouts, A. Dimitrov, Z. Zhang, R. R. Redfield, A. L. DeVico, R. C. Gallo, G. K. Lewis. (2009) Discordant memory B cell and circulating anti-Env antibody responses in HIV-1 infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:10, 3952-3957
CrossRef100
Jens Wrammert, Joe Miller, Rama Akondy, Rafi Ahmed. (2009) Human Immune Memory to Yellow Fever and Smallpox Vaccination. Journal of Clinical Immunology 29:2, 151-157
CrossRef101
Claire-Anne Siegrist, Richard Aspinall. (2009) B-cell responses to vaccination at the extremes of age. Nature Reviews Immunology 9:3, 185-194
CrossRef102
Christopher A. Tormey, Gary Stack. (2009) The persistence and evanescence of blood group alloantibodies in men. Transfusion 49:3, 505-512
CrossRef103
Y. Al Tabaa, E. Tuaillon, K. Bollore, V. Foulongne, G. Petitjean, J.-M. Seigneurin, C. Duperray, C. Desgranges, J.-P. Vendrell. (2009) Functional Epstein-Barr virus reservoir in plasma cells derived from infected peripheral blood memory B cells. Blood 113:3, 604-611
CrossRef104
Dimitri A. Denisov, Galina F. Denisova, Alina Lelic, Mark B. Loeb, Jonathan L. Bramson. (2009) Deciphering epitope specificities within polyserum using affinity selection of random peptides and a novel algorithm based on pattern recognition theory. Molecular Immunology 46:3, 429-436
CrossRef105
T. Alexander, A. Thiel, O. Rosen, G. Massenkeil, A. Sattler, S. Kohler, H. Mei, H. Radtke, E. Gromnica-Ihle, G.-R. Burmester, R. Arnold, A. Radbruch, F. Hiepe. (2009) Depletion of autoreactive immunologic memory followed by autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in patients with refractory SLE induces long-term remission through de novo generation of a juvenile and tolerant immune system. Blood 113:1, 214-223
CrossRef106
Shuya Y. Kyu, James Kobie, Hongmei Yang, Martin S. Zand, David J. Topham, Sally A. Quataert, Ignacio Sanz, F. Eun-Hyung Lee. (2009) Frequencies of human influenza-specific antibody secreting cells or plasmablasts post vaccination from fresh and frozen peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Journal of Immunological Methods 340:1, 42-47
CrossRef107
Heikki Peltola, Sari Jokinen, Mikko Paunio, Tapani Hovi, Irja Davidkin. (2008) Measles, mumps, and rubella in Finland: 25 years of a nationwide elimination programme. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 8:12, 796-803
CrossRef108
M. Anthony Moody, Barton F. Haynes. (2008) Antigen-specific B cell detection reagents: Use and quality control. Cytometry Part A 73A:11, 1086-1092
CrossRef109
Marinos C Dalakas. (2008) B cells as therapeutic targets in autoimmune neurological disorders. Nature Clinical Practice Neurology 4:10, 557-567
CrossRef110
Matthew R Olson, Steven M Varga. (2008) Pulmonary immunity and immunopathology: lessons from respiratory syncytial virus. Expert Review of Vaccines 7:8, 1239-1255
CrossRef111
Xiaocong Yu, Tshidi Tsibane, Patricia A. McGraw, Frances S. House, Christopher J. Keefer, Mark D. Hicar, Terrence M. Tumpey, Claudia Pappas, Lucy A. Perrone, Osvaldo Martinez, James Stevens, Ian A. Wilson, Patricia V. Aguilar, Eric L. Altschuler, Christopher F. Basler, James E. Crowe Jr. (2008) Neutralizing antibodies derived from the B cells of 1918 influenza pandemic survivors. Nature 455:7212, 532-536
CrossRef112
Scott M. Ward, Prabhjeet Phalora, Daniel Bradshaw, Heike Leyendeckers, Paul Klenerman. (2008) Direct Ex Vivo Evaluation of Long‐Lived Protective Antiviral Memory B Cell Responses against Hepatitis B Virus. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 198:6, 813-817
CrossRef113
Stanley A. Plotkin. (2008) Vaccines: Correlates of Vaccine‐Induced Immunity. Clinical Infectious Diseases 47:3, 401-409
CrossRef114
B. Mietzner, M. Tsuiji, J. Scheid, K. Velinzon, T. Tiller, K. Abraham, J. B. Gonzalez, V. Pascual, D. Stichweh, H. Wardemann, M. C. Nussenzweig. (2008) Autoreactive IgG memory antibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus arise from nonreactive and polyreactive precursors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105:28, 9727-9732
CrossRef115
F. Bailleux, L. Coudeville, A. Kolenc-Saban, J. Bevilacqua, L. Barreto, P. André. (2008) Predicted long-term persistence of pertussis antibodies in adolescents after an adolescent and adult formulation combined tetanus, diphtheria, and 5-component acellular pertussis vaccine, based on mathematical modeling and 5-year observed data. Vaccine 26:31, 3903-3908
CrossRef116
M. Mamani-Matsuda, A. Cosma, S. Weller, A. Faili, C. Staib, L. Garcon, O. Hermine, O. Beyne-Rauzy, C. Fieschi, J.-O. Pers, N. Arakelyan, B. Varet, A. Sauvanet, A. Berger, F. Paye, J.-M. Andrieu, M. Michel, B. Godeau, P. Buffet, C.-A. Reynaud, J.-C. Weill. (2008) The human spleen is a major reservoir for long-lived vaccinia virus-specific memory B cells. Blood 111:9, 4653-4659
CrossRef117
Timothy C. Reluga, Jan Medlock, Alan S. Perelson. (2008) Backward bifurcations and multiple equilibria in epidemic models with structured immunity. Journal of Theoretical Biology 252:1, 155-165
CrossRef
