Original Article
MGMT Gene Silencing and Benefit from Temozolomide in Glioblastoma
N Engl J Med 2005; 352:997-1003March 10, 2005
- Abstract
Background
Epigenetic silencing of the MGMT (O6-methylguanine–DNA methyltransferase) DNA-repair gene by promoter methylation compromises DNA repair and has been associated with longer survival in patients with glioblastoma who receive alkylating agents.
Methods
We tested the relationship between MGMT silencing in the tumor and the survival of patients who were enrolled in a randomized trial comparing radiotherapy alone with radiotherapy combined with concomitant and adjuvant treatment with temozolomide. The methylation status of the MGMT promoter was determined by methylation-specific polymerase-chain-reaction analysis.
Results
The MGMT promoter was methylated in 45 percent of 206 assessable cases. Irrespective of treatment, MGMT promoter methylation was an independent favorable prognostic factor (P<0.001 by the log-rank test; hazard ratio, 0.45; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.32 to 0.61). Among patients whose tumor contained a methylated MGMT promoter, a survival benefit was observed in patients treated with temozolomide and radiotherapy; their median survival was 21.7 months (95 percent confidence interval, 17.4 to 30.4), as compared with 15.3 months (95 percent confidence interval, 13.0 to 20.9) among those who were assigned to only radiotherapy (P=0.007 by the log-rank test). In the absence of methylation of the MGMT promoter, there was a smaller and statistically insignificant difference in survival between the treatment groups.
Conclusions
Patients with glioblastoma containing a methylated MGMT promoter benefited from temozolomide, whereas those who did not have a methylated MGMT promoter did not have such a benefit.
Media in This Article
Figure 1
Methylation Status of the MGMT Promoter in Glioblastoma Biopsy Specimens, as Determined by a Nested Methylation-Specific PCR Assay.Figure 2
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Overall Survival, According to MGMT Promoter Methylation Status.Article Activity
- Article
Epigenetic silencing of the MGMT (O6-methylguanine–DNA methyltransferase) gene by promoter methylation has been associated with longer overall survival in patients with glioblastoma who, in addition to radiotherapy, received alkylating chemotherapy with carmustine or temozolomide.1,2 The MGMT gene is located on chromosome 10q26 and encodes a DNA-repair protein that removes alkyl groups from the O6 position of guanine, an important site of DNA alkylation. The restoration of the DNA consumes the MGMT protein, which the cell must replenish. Left unrepaired, chemotherapy-induced lesions, especially O6-methylguanine, trigger cytotoxicity and apoptosis.3,4 High levels of MGMT activity in cancer cells create a resistant phenotype by blunting the therapeutic effect of alkylating agents and may be an important determinant of treatment failure.5-10 Epigenetic silencing of the MGMT gene by promoter methylation is associated with loss of MGMT expression11-13 and diminished DNA-repair activity. In the course of tumor development, gene silencing by DNA methylation is an early and important mechanism by which tumor-suppressor genes are inactivated.14,15
In a phase 2 evaluation of combined radiotherapy and temozolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma, we found that methylation of the MGMT promoter in the tumor was associated with longer survival.2 In the current study, we investigated whether MGMT promoter methylation in glioblastoma is associated with a benefit from temozolomide treatment. We determined the MGMT promoter methylation status in tumor tissues from patients who were enrolled in a randomized trial that showed a survival advantage among patients treated with temozolomide and radiotherapy as compared with radiotherapy alone.16
Methods
Patients and Treatment
Patients were enrolled in a randomized trial of chemoradiotherapy (temozolomide plus radiotherapy) versus radiotherapy alone (carried out by the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer and the National Cancer Institute of Canada [NCIC]) (EORTC trial 26981/22981 and NCIC trial CE.3).16 Patients in the experimental group received the alkylating agent temozolomide (Temodal or Temodar, Schering-Plough) at a dose of 75 mg per square meter of body-surface area daily during standard fractionated radiotherapy (60 Gy) for 6 to 7 weeks and at a dose of 150 to 200 mg per square meter per day for 5 days of every 28-day cycle after radiotherapy, for up to six cycles. In the case of tumor progression, salvage or second-line therapy was administered at the investigators' discretion; most patients received additional chemotherapy. All patients provided written informed consent for molecular studies of their tumor, and the protocol was approved by the ethics committee at each center.
DNA Extraction and Methylation-Specific Polymerase Chain Reaction
Genomic DNA was isolated from one or two paraffin sections of glioblastoma tissue (Ex-Wax DNA Extraction Kit S4530, Chemicon) (proteinase digestion lasted a maximum of six hours). DNA was denatured with sodium hydroxide in a volume of 35 μl and subjected to bisulfite treatment in a volume of 360 μl (4.4 M sodium bisulfite and 20 mM hydroquinone) for five hours at 55°C and then purified (Wizard DNA Clean-Up System A7280, Promega). Unmethylated cytosine, but not its methylated counterpart, is modified into uracil by the treatment. The methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in a two-step approach.17 The results were confirmed in an independent experiment, starting with reisolation of DNA from the tumor. The PCR products were separated on 4 percent agarose gels. The investigators who selected and analyzed the glioblastoma samples were blinded to all clinical information.
Statistical Analysis
Overall and progression-free survival curves were estimated by the Kaplan–Meier technique and compared with use of the two-sided log-rank test. All treatment comparisons are presented on an intention-to-treat basis according to the randomized assignment. The Cox proportional-hazards model was fitted to assess the prognostic and predictive values of the methylation status of the MGMT promoter, the protocol treatment, and potential prognostic factors18 that were found to be statistically significant in this population on the basis of univariate testing.
Organization of the Study
This project was initiated and carried out without the involvement of a commercial sponsor. Dr. Hegi designed and supervised the translational study and wrote the manuscript, with input from the coauthors. Methylation-specific PCR was performed by Ms. Diserens. The statistical analysis was performed by Mr. Gorlia. The clinical trial was designed and directed by Dr. Stupp, in collaboration with the EORTC and the NCIC Clinical Trials Group.
Results
Methylation-specific PCR was performed on 307 of 573 glioblastoma specimens (53.6 percent) from patients enrolled at 66 of 85 participating centers (Figure 1Figure 1
Methylation Status of the MGMT Promoter in Glioblastoma Biopsy Specimens, as Determined by a Nested Methylation-Specific PCR Assay.); adequate paraffin-embedded tumor tissue was not available from 266 patients. MGMT methylation status could be determined for 206 of the 307 tumors (67.1 percent), or 36.0 percent of the tumors from the overall study population. The success rate of methylation-specific PCR on paraffin-embedded tumor samples was highly variable and center-dependent. For centers with four or more testable samples, the median success rate was 75.0 percent (range, 0 to 100 percent). Treatment assignments among the 307 patients with evaluable tumor specimens was equally distributed, with 152 patients (49.5 percent) randomly assigned to radiotherapy alone and 155 (50.5 percent) randomly assigned to temozolomide and radiotherapy.The subgroup of 206 patients in whom MGMT promoter methylation status could be determined was representative of the overall treatment population with respect to known prognostic factors and outcomes. However, the proportion of patients who had only a diagnostic biopsy specimen (and no debulking surgery) was smaller in the subgroup tested for MGMT promoter methylation than in the subgroup of patients in whom methylation status could not be determined (3.4 percent vs. 23.0 percent). Overall survival did not vary significantly according to whether or not the test was attempted (P=0.27 by the log-rank test) or whether or not the results were interpretable (P=0.23 by the log-rank test) (Figure 1 of the Supplementary Appendix, available with the full text of this article at www.nejm.org). Of the 206 evaluated tumors, 92 (44.7 percent) had detectable MGMT promoter methylation, whereas 114 (55.3 percent) did not. The proportion of methylated tumors was similar in the two treatment groups (Table 1Table 1
Effect of MGMT Promoter Methylation Status on Survival, According to Random Treatment Assignment.).For the entire population of 206 patients for whom MGMT status could be evaluated, there was a significant difference, irrespective of treatment assignment, in overall survival between patients whose tumors had MGMT promoter methylation and those whose tumors did not (P<0.001 by the log-rank test) (Figure 2Figure 2
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Overall Survival, According to MGMT Promoter Methylation Status.). The hazard ratio for death was 0.45 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.32 to 0.61) among those with MGMT promoter methylation, a result that corresponds to a 55 percent decrease in the risk of death in this subgroup. The median overall survival among patients with methylation was 18.2 months (95 percent confidence interval, 15.5 to 22.0), as compared with 12.2 months (95 percent confidence interval, 11.4 to 13.5) among those without methylation.When both treatment assignment and MGMT promoter methylation status were considered, the longest median overall survival, 21.7 months, was observed among patients with promoter methylation who were assigned to receive both temozolomide and radiotherapy (Table 1). Their two-year survival rate was 46.0 percent, as compared with 22.7 percent among those with MGMT promoter methylation who were assigned to radiotherapy alone. Kaplan–Meier estimates of overall survival in these two subgroups were significantly different (P=0.007 by the log-rank test) (Figure 3AFigure 3
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Overall and Progression-free Survival, According to MGMT Promoter Methylation Status and Random Assignment to Temozolomide plus Radiotherapy or Radiotherapy Alone.).By contrast, among patients whose tumors were not methylated at the MGMT promoter, the difference in overall survival favoring the temozolomide-plus-radiotherapy group was only marginally significant (P=0.06 by the log-rank test) (Figure 3A); the median survival was 12.7 months among those assigned to temozolomide and radiotherapy and 11.8 months among those assigned to radiotherapy, with 2-year survival rates of 13.8 percent and less than 2 percent, respectively (Table 1). The interaction between the magnitude of the treatment effect and MGMT promoter methylation status with respect to overall survival was not statistically significant, according to the Cox proportional-hazards model (P=0.29) (Table 2Table 2
Results of Analyses with the Cox Proportional-Hazards Models.). However, this result was not unexpected, since neither the clinical trial nor this study was powered to test the interaction.In addition, a probable confounding factor in the analysis of overall survival was the administration of temozolomide or other alkylating chemotherapy as salvage or second-line treatment after disease progression. More than 70 percent of the patients in the radiotherapy group received salvage chemotherapy; 59.7 percent received temozolomide. In the temozolomide-plus-radiotherapy group, 57.8 percent received second-line chemotherapy; 24.6 percent were retreated with temozolomide. We therefore analyzed progression-free survival relative to MGMT promoter methylation status and treatment assignment (Figure 3B and Table 1).
In the group of patients whose tumors contained a methylated MGMT promoter, those who received temozolomide and radiotherapy had a median progression-free survival of 10.3 months, as compared with 5.9 months for patients who received radiotherapy alone (P=0.001). Among the patients whose tumors contained an unmethylated MGMT promoter, those who received temozolomide and radiotherapy had a median progression-free survival of 5.3 months, as compared with 4.4 months for patients who were treated with radiotherapy alone (P=0.02) (Figure 3B). The relatively long overall survival despite the short progression-free survival among patients with a methylated MGMT promoter who were assigned to receive only radiotherapy indicates that salvage therapy at the time of recurrence has some efficacy in this subpopulation.
To analyze further the influence of the methylation status of the MGMT promoter, we performed a multivariate analysis with the use of the Cox proportional-hazards model, stratified according to treatment group and including known clinical prognostic factors (Table 2). The methylation status of the MGMT promoter (P<0.001) and the score on the Mini–Mental State Examination (P=0.007) emerged as significant independent prognostic factors. The adjusted hazard ratio of 0.41 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.29 to 0.57) for MGMT promoter methylation was consistent with the unadjusted hazard ratio of 0.45 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.32 to 0.61).
Discussion
We found that MGMT promoter methylation is associated with a favorable outcome after temozolomide chemotherapy in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma. Our data suggest that the methylation status of the MGMT promoter may have prognostic value and, in addition, may be a clinically relevant predictor of benefit from temozolomide chemotherapy. Despite the survival benefit associated with temozolomide among patients with a methylated MGMT promoter, the overall survival curves for temozolomide and radiotherapy and for radiotherapy alone remain similar for the first nine months of follow-up. This suggests that MGMT methylation, though important, is not the sole factor determining outcome. Lack of mismatch-repair has also been shown to render tumors resistant to alkylating agents, even in the absence of MGMT.4 Additional mechanisms and predictive factors are likely to be relevant and need to be identified.
Diagnostic MGMT testing requires sufficient and optimally preserved tumor tissue. The best results with methylation-specific PCR are obtained with cryopreserved tumor specimens, thus avoiding fixation-related deterioration of the quality of tumor DNA. Other methods, such as immunohistochemistry or activity testing, may not be reliable, since MGMT expression is prone to induction by glucocorticoids, ionizing radiation, and genotoxic agents19,20 when the MGMT promoter is not methylated.
Determination of MGMT promoter methylation status by methylation-specific PCR may allow the selection of patients most likely to benefit from temozolomide treatment; patients whose tumors are not methylated at the MGMT promoter appear to derive little or no benefit from the addition of temozolomide to radiotherapy. For these patients, alternative treatments with a different mechanism of action or methods of inhibiting MGMT should be developed.21,22 Our findings may be applicable to other solid tumors commonly treated with alkylating agents, such as melanoma, but possibly also to lung and breast cancer and lymphoma. Stratification according to MGMT promoter methylation status may be considered in future trials in which temozolomide or other alkylating agents are used.
Supported by grants from the Swiss Institute of Applied Cancer Research, the Nélia and Amadeo Barletta Foundation, and the EORTC Translational Research Fund 2002 (to Drs. Hegi and Stupp); by Award 2002 from the Jacqueline Seroussi Memorial Foundation for Cancer Research (to Dr. Hegi); by a grant (3100-64050.00/1, to Dr. Hegi) from the Swiss National Science Foundation; and by a grant (1123/1124-2-2001, to Dr. Hegi) from OncoSuisse.
Drs. Hegi, Mason, Mariani, Cairncross, Mirimanoff, and Stupp report having received consulting and lecture fees from Schering-Plough. Drs. Hegi and Stupp report having received consulting fees from OncoMethylome Sciences, and Dr. Stupp (consulting fees from EMD Pharmaceuticals).
We are indebted to all the patients and their families for having agreed to participate in this trial and to donate tumor biopsy specimens for translational research; to Solange Gros for technical assistance; to Denis Lacombe, Anouk Allgeier, and Linda de Prijck (of the EORTC Data Center) and Elizabeth Eisenhauer and Marina Djurfield (of the NCIC Clinical Trials Group office); and to all investigators at the clinical centers who participated in the trial and who made the paraffin-embedded material available for this translational research effort.
Source Information
From the Laboratory of Tumor Biology and Genetics, Department of Neurosurgery (M.E.H., A.-C.D., M.-F.H., N.T.), the Departments of Radiotherapy (R.O.M.) and Neuropathology (R.C.J.), and the Multidisciplinary Oncology Center (R.S.), University Hospital Lausanne, Lausanne; the Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Geneva, Geneva (N.T.); the National Center of Competence in Research Molecular Oncology, Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, Epalinges (M.E.H.); and the Department of Neurosurgery, Inselspital, Bern (L.M.) — all in Switzerland; the Data Center, European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer, Brussels (T.G.); the Department of Neurology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (M.W.), and the Department of Neurology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg (P.H.) — both in Germany; the Division of Neuropathology, University Hospital Rotterdam, Rotterdam (J.M.K.), and University Medical Center, Utrecht (J.E.C.B.) — both in the Netherlands; the Institute of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, (J.A.H.); and Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto (W.M.), and the University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta. (J.G.C.) — both in Canada.
Address reprint requests to Dr. Hegi at the Laboratory of Tumor Biology and Genetics, Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital (CHUV), BH19-110, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland, or at monika.hegi@chuv.hospvd.ch.
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