Original Article
Intraplaque Hemorrhage and Progression of Coronary Atheroma
N Engl J Med 2003; 349:2316-2325December 11, 2003
- Abstract
Background
Intraplaque hemorrhage is common in advanced coronary atherosclerotic lesions. The relation between hemorrhage and the vulnerability of plaque to disruption may involve the accumulation of free cholesterol from erythrocyte membranes.
Methods
We stained multiple coronary lesions from 24 randomly selected patients who had died suddenly of coronary causes with an antibody against glycophorin A (a protein specific to erythrocytes that facilitates anion exchange) and Mallory's stain for iron (hemosiderin), markers of previous intraplaque hemorrhage. Coronary lesions were classified as lesions with pathologic intimal thickening, fibrous-cap atheromas with cores in an early or late stage of necrosis, or thin-cap fibrous atheromas (vulnerable plaques). The arterial response to plaque hemorrhage was further defined in a rabbit model of atherosclerosis.
Results
Only traces of glycophorin A and iron were found in lesions with pathologic intimal thickening or fibrous-cap atheromas with cores in an early stage of necrosis. In contrast, fibroatheromas with cores in a late stage of necrosis or thin caps had a marked increase in glycophorin A in regions of cholesterol clefts surrounded by iron deposits. Larger amounts of both glycophorin A and iron were associated with larger necrotic cores and greater macrophage infiltration. Rabbit lesions with induced intramural hemorrhage consistently showed cholesterol crystals with erythrocyte fragments, foam cells, and iron deposits. In contrast, control lesions from the same animals had a marked reduction in macrophages and lipid content.
Conclusions
By contributing to the deposition of free cholesterol, macrophage infiltration, and enlargement of the necrotic core, the accumulation of erythrocyte membranes within an atherosclerotic plaque may represent a potent atherogenic stimulus. These factors may increase the risk of plaque destabilization.
Media in This Article
Figure 1
Intraplaque Hemorrhage in Fibroatheroma with a Core in a Late Stage of Necrosis (Panels A, B, C, D, and E) and Thin-Cap Fibroatheroma (Panels F, G, H, I, and J).Figure 2
Relation of Glycophorin A Scores (Panel A) and Iron Scores (Panel B) to the Mean (±SE) Size of the Necrotic Core.Article Activity
- Article
Atherosclerotic plaque comprises a heterogeneous mixture of cellular and acellular elements. The conversion of a stable, asymptomatic lesion to an unstable, ruptured plaque involves many processes, the most studied of which are inflammation, cellular breakdown, and expansion of the acellular, lipid-rich, necrotic core. It is commonly held that the death of macrophages and smooth-muscle foam cells, in addition to the aggregation of lipoproteins, contributes to the accumulation of extracellular free cholesterol within unstable plaques.1,2 The contribution of intraplaque hemorrhage to the expansion of the core of plaques, however, has not been studied, despite the knowledge that intraplaque hemorrhage is a common phenomenon. Furthermore, the free cholesterol content of erythrocyte membranes exceeds that of all other cells in the body, with lipid constituting 40 percent of the weight.3,4 Extravasated erythrocytes outside the coronary vasculature contain free cholesterol and macrophages,5,6 and intimal plaques in patients with pulmonary hypertension contain erythrocyte membranes.7
The aim of this study was to demonstrate erythrocyte membranes within the necrotic cores of human atherosclerotic plaques, even those without recent hemorrhages, and relate them to the progression and instability of the lesions. We also examined the fate of erythrocytes in established plaques in atherosclerotic rabbits to provide a model of hemorrhage-induced progression of lesions. Establishment of a link between intraplaque hemorrhage and the expansion of the lesions would provide another potential mechanism of plaque progression and vulnerability.
Methods
Selection of Patients
An institutional review board approved the study. Hearts of patients who had died suddenly of coronary causes were obtained as described previously.8 Of 270 such patients, 100 were randomly selected for investigation to determine the incidence of hemorrhage in nonculprit plaques with luminal narrowing of more than 50 percent. The mean (±SD) number of intraplaque hemorrhages per heart was 5.0±0.4 in patients with coronary thrombosis resulting from acute plaque rupture, as compared with 0.6±0.3 in those with thrombosis caused by plaque erosion (P<0.002) and 2.8±0.8 in those with stenosis of at least 75 percent of the lesion in the absence of acute thrombi (P<0.04).
The high incidence of intraplaque hemorrhage in hearts with ruptured plaques prompted further study of lesions in another 24 randomly selected patients who had died suddenly of coronary causes. In each case, if the necrotic core showed a predominance of erythrocytes on conventional staining with hematoxylin and eosin, the sections were excluded from analysis. The remaining sections were examined for glycophorin A, a protein specific to erythrocytes that facilitates anion exchange.9 Nonculprit plaques were categorized morphologically to gain insights into the role of intraplaque hemorrhage in the progression and instability of lesions. Finally, we reviewed patients' records from our institute to identify those with nonvascular lesions containing hemorrhagic areas associated with pericarditis, hemangiomas, and cholesterol granulomas of the lung.
Tissue Processing
Formalin-fixed coronary segments were embedded in paraffin, and 4-μm sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and Movat pentachrome. Parallel sections were prepared to identify collagen matrix (with the use of picrosirius red stain) and iron (with the use of Mallory's stain), as well as for immunohistochemical analysis.
Classification of Lesions
We examined 810 sections for lesions and classified the lesions using an American Heart Association scheme modified by our laboratory.10 We included lesions with pathologic intimal thickening, fibroatheromas whose cores were in an early stage (“early core”) or late stage (“late core”) of necrosis, and thin-cap fibroatheromas. Early cores contain cholesterol clefts, macrophages, and proteoglycans or collagen; late cores have more numerous cholesterol clefts and cellular debris with an absence of extracellular matrix. Using these criteria, we analyzed 365 plaques: 129 plaques with pathologic intimal thickening, 79 fibroatheromas with early cores, 105 fibroatheromas with late cores, and 52 thin-cap fibroatheromas.
Immunohistochemical Studies
Paraffin sections were incubated with an antibody against glycophorin A to identify sites of previous plaque hemorrhage. Macrophages were identified by staining with antibody against CD68, and endothelial cells by staining with antibody against von Willebrand factor. Primary antibodies were labeled with a biotinylated link antibody directed against mouse antigen with the use of a peroxidase-based kit (LSAB, Dako) and visualized with use of a 3-amino-9-ethylcarbazole substrate.
The percentage of the necrotic core or lipid pool that was made up of glycophorin A and iron was graded semiquantitatively by two independent observers using a scale from 0 to 4, with higher scores indicating higher percentages. Only specimens with staining of erythrocyte fragments were included in the analysis. Computer-based morphometry was used to measure the size of the lipid core, plaque area, and macrophage content as described previously.11
Proof-of-Concept Study in Rabbits
Rabbit Model of Simulated Intraplaque Hemorrhage
Six New Zealand white rabbits that were three to four months old were fed an atherogenic diet (containing 1 percent cholesterol and 6 percent peanut oil) to initiate the formation of atheromas. After one week, lesions were produced in the abdominal aorta by balloon-induced injury. The animals were fed the atherogenic diet for another 4 weeks and then given purified rabbit chow with no added cholesterol until they were killed at 14 weeks.
Rabbit Model of Intramural Hemorrhage
After eight weeks of the nonatherogenic diet, the rabbits underwent a left-sided lateral laparotomy while under general anesthesia, and a 4-cm segment of the abdominal aorta was exposed. A 30-gauge needle was introduced into the arterial lumen at the sites of lesions and then slowly withdrawn until the beveled tip was within the arterial wall. Washed autologous erythrocytes (25 to 50 μl) were slowly delivered into established atherosclerotic plaques with the use of a handheld 1-ml syringe. A slightly raised hematoma provided visual confirmation that erythrocytes were trapped within the plaque. Injections were made in two to three lesions per animal; noninjected lesions served as controls. The animals continued to be fed a normal-chow diet for another six weeks.
Tissue Preparation and Staining
The rabbits were killed, the arterial tree was perfused and fixed, and the abdominal aorta was excised and cut into 3-mm segments. Frozen blocks were prepared, and cryosections (6 μm) were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and Movat pentachrome. Additional sections were used to determine the lipid content (with oil red O stain) and the iron content and for immunohistochemical analysis. Macrophages were identified with a specific monoclonal antibody against rabbit alveolar macrophages (RAM11). To identify erythrocyte membranes, we stained the sections with isolectin B4 from Bandeiraea simplicifolia conjugated with biotin.12
Statistical Analysis
Data are presented as means ±SE. We used a t-test with Dunnett's correction to compare continuous variables by analysis of variance. Differences between measured variables were considered significant if the resultant P value was 0.05 or less.
Results
Human Coronary Plaques
Hemorrhage in Coronary Plaques
Table 1Table 1
Morphometric Analysis of 365 Plaques in Coronary Arteries from Patients Who Died Suddenly of Coronary Causes. shows the glycophorin A and iron scores, the sizes of the necrotic cores, and the extent of macrophage infiltration in the specific types of lesions. As compared with lesions with pathologic intimal thickening or early-core fibroatheromas, fibroatheromas with late cores and thin-cap fibroatheromas had significantly greater mean scores for glycophorin A and iron (P<0.001). Previous hemorrhage was identified in 8 of 129 plaques with pathologic intimal thickening (6 percent), 15 of 79 fibroatheromas with early cores (19 percent), and 56 of 105 fibroatheromas with late cores (53 percent). The incidence of hemorrhage was greatest among thin-cap fibroatheromas, with 40 of 52 lesions (77 percent) positive for glycophorin A or iron. Advanced lesions with erythrocytes often contained extensive areas of neovascularization, with diffuse perivascular staining for von Willebrand factor (Figure 1Figure 1Intraplaque Hemorrhage in Fibroatheroma with a Core in a Late Stage of Necrosis (Panels A, B, C, D, and E) and Thin-Cap Fibroatheroma (Panels F, G, H, I, and J).). The area of the necrotic core was significantly greater in fibroatheromas with late cores or thin caps than in fibroatheromas with early cores (P<0.001). The larger necrotic cores were associated with an increased density of CD68-positive macrophages, especially toward the fibrous cap. Notably, higher glycophorin A or iron scores were associated with larger necrotic cores (Figure 2Figure 2Relation of Glycophorin A Scores (Panel A) and Iron Scores (Panel B) to the Mean (±SE) Size of the Necrotic Core.).Hemorrhage in Noncoronary Lesions
Selected specimens from patients with hemorrhage in noncoronary lesions were examined. In one example, a right atrial hemangioma contained a large collection of erythrocytes, cholesterol clefts, and foamy cells; perivascular staining for von Willebrand factor was also evident. In a specimen from a patient with hemorrhagic pericarditis, there was intense staining for glycophorin A with extensive deposition of free cholesterol in the absence of inflammatory cells; however, CD68-positive macrophages and extracellular iron deposits were present in the periphery of the lesion (Figure 3Figure 3
Atherogenic Changes Associated with Extravasated Erythrocytes in Noncoronary Lesions.).Rabbit Model of Induced Intramural Hemorrhage
Plasma Lipids
The mean total cholesterol levels in the rabbits were 45±19 mg per deciliter (1.2±0.5 mmol per liter) before the experiment was initiated and 2216±466 mg per deciliter (57.3±12.0 mmol per liter) after five weeks of the atherogenic diet. At the time of the erythrocyte injection (after eight weeks of a control diet devoid of supplemental lipids), the cholesterol levels were dramatically lower and thereafter were equivalent to base-line levels (33±10 mg per deciliter [0.9±0.3 mmol per liter]).
Histologic Appearance of Aortic Lesions with Intramural Hemorrhage
Rabbit atheromas with injected erythrocytes had more extensive macrophage infiltration than control lesions (17±3.6 percent vs. 3.7±2.2 percent, P=0.03), despite the fact that the sizes of the plaques were similar in the two groups. The lipid content on staining with oil red O was also significantly higher in the plaques with injected erythrocytes than in control lesions (34±6 percent vs. 22.1±4.5 percent, P=0.05). Histologically, plaques with injected erythrocytes showed discrete dissection planes with circumferential infiltration of macrophages within the arterial wall.
Numerous lipid-laden RAM11-positive foam cells were found in the superficial and deep layers of the arterial wall. The lipid content was extensive in plaques that had received an injection of erythrocytes. Cholesterol crystals were frequently found with erythrocyte fragments (as evidenced by staining with isolectin B4) and macrophage foam cells containing iron deposits (Figure 4Figure 4
Serial Cryosections Showing a Rabbit Atheroma with Intramural Hemorrhage (Panels A, B, C, and D) and a Control Lesion (Panels E, F, G, and H).). In contrast, control lesions contained smooth-muscle cells, particularly toward the areas of the lumen and media and collagen matrix. Furthermore, control lesions had fewer macrophages in parallel with reduced staining for oil red O, and the erythrocytes were confined to the adventitial layer (Figure 4).Discussion
Our findings indicate that there is an association among intraplaque hemorrhage, an increase in the size of the necrotic core, and lesion instability in coronary plaques. Immunostaining with antibody against glycophorin A revealed previous hemorrhages in lesions with late cores and those prone to rupture. The degree of reactivity of glycophorin A and the level of iron accumulation corresponded to the size of the necrotic core, and the increase in these variables paralleled the increase in the density of macrophages, raising the possibility that the hemorrhage itself serves as an inflammatory stimulus. To test the hypothesis that erythrocytes actively participate in the progression of atheromas, we devised an experimental model of intramural hemorrhage in the rabbit. The injection of autologous erythrocytes into existing lesions produced plaques with crystalline cholesterol, lipid, iron, and foam cells, whereas control lesions had little free cholesterol and few macrophages. The finding that intramural hemorrhage in an experimental atherosclerotic lesion induces the formation of cholesterol crystals with the recruitment of macrophages supports our hypothesis that erythrocyte membranes in the necrotic core of human coronary lesions can cause an abrupt increase in the levels of free cholesterol, resulting in expansion of the necrotic core and the potential for the destabilization of plaque.
In the first half of the 20th century, Wartman and others suggested that intraplaque hemorrhage is a major contributor to the progression of coronary lesions.13-15 Studies involving the injection of silicon polymer into atherosclerotic human coronary arteries16 demonstrated an elaborate microvascular network (the vasa vasorum) extending from the adventitia through the media and into the thickened intima; nonatherosclerotic vessels rarely had vasa vasorum. Intraplaque hemorrhage is believed to arise from the disruption of thin-walled microvessels that are lined by a discontinuous endothelium without supporting smooth-muscle cells.17 Moreover, several investigators, including some from our laboratory, have suggested that intraplaque hemorrhage and rupture of the fibrous cap are associated with an increased density of microvessels.18-20 A greater number of vasa vasorum in ruptured plaques and hemorrhages suggests that a larger pool of erythrocytes is available to participate in necrotic-core enlargement within these lesions. Our finding of diffuse, perivascular staining of vasa vasorum with von Willebrand factor and evidence of erythrocyte membranes within necrotic cores points to microvascular disruption as a source of erythrocyte-derived cholesterol. Plaque fissures could also account for the accumulation of erythrocytes; however, fissures are often accompanied by luminal thrombi, which we did not find in any specimen.
Lipid composition is believed to influence the stability of atherosclerotic plaques, given that the level of free cholesterol is significantly increased in disrupted lesions.21 Furthermore, the percentage of cholesterol clefts is greater in lesions that have ruptured than in fibrocalcific plaques.10 Although apoptotic macrophages may be a source of free cholesterol, it is unlikely that the total free cholesterol content in plaques could be derived from foam cells alone, since most of the cholesterol in foam cells is esterified.22 Our finding of both cholesterol crystals and glycophorin A in the necrotic cores of advanced coronary plaques is similar to the finding of cholesterol clefts, macrophages, and iron in large areas of extravasated erythrocytes outside the coronary circulation. Although it is conceivable that the cholesterol crystals in these nonvascular lesions are derived from foam cells, cholesterol clefts often reside exclusively in areas of erythrocytes lacking macrophages. In these instances, cholesterol derived from erythrocyte membranes may exceed a critical level, forming an immiscible cholesterol phase and ultimately crystallizing.23
The cholesterol content of erythrocyte membranes may represent an independent risk factor for acute ischemic events, since it reflects the levels of circulating cholesterol.24 In rats and rabbits, hypercholesterolemia causes the cholesterol content of erythrocyte membranes to increase substantially.25,26 The cholesterol content of erythrocyte membranes is also elevated in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia and decreases with short-term treatment with statins.27,28 The positive association between an elevated serum cholesterol level and an increased number of vulnerable plaques,8 together with our findings of intense staining for glycophorin A in advanced lesions and the dependence of erythrocyte-membrane cholesterol on circulating lipids, lends support to the hypothesis that the instability of plaques may be mediated in part by erythrocyte-membrane cholesterol.
The cellular response to extravasated erythrocytes appears to be influenced by the unique properties of the atherosclerotic intima. In the brain, skin, and normal arterial wall, experimental hematomas provoke a healing response characterized by the lysis of erythrocytes at 24 hours, followed within four to five days by an influx of macrophages, erythrophagocytosis, and the accumulation of iron.29-31 Most of the hemorrhage in these tissues resolves by 7 to 14 days. In contrast, the intima of an atherosclerotic plaque appears to provide the appropriate milieu for the retention of erythrocyte-membrane cholesterol and foam cells.32 Hemorrhage within the necrotic core of a plaque may attract macrophages that eventually become trapped within the core and are unable to survive.
The signals erythrocytes may use to stimulate inflammation in coronary and noncoronary hemorrhages are not fully understood. The crystallization of cholesterol from erythrocyte membranes may incite a foreign-body reaction, as seen in cholesterol granulomas.33 Alternatively, the migration of macrophages may be promoted by multispecific receptors on erythrocyte membranes, which can bind a wide array of chemokines in the blood, including monocyte chemotactic peptide 1.34,35 Furthermore, the products of lipid oxidation from senescent erythrocytes or iron-catalyzed reactions may liberate potent chemoattractants.36 On the basis of our experimental data in rabbits, acute hemorrhagic events promote the accumulation of free cholesterol and stimulate the excessive influx of macrophages. Our findings of intramural hemorrhage may further explain the episodic growth of human atherosclerotic plaque and may also explain why a coronary lesion can remain quiescent for extended periods and then suddenly become unstable.
Recent studies of carotid plaques suggest that lipids derived from erythrocyte membranes may contribute to the formation of foam cells. In an analysis of microvessels in carotid-endarterectomy specimens, Kockx et al. found excessive perivascular accumulation of von Willebrand factor, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and ceroid (a marker of previous oxidative events) within foam cells in 27 percent of plaques.37 Macrophages frequently contain hemoglobin and iron, suggesting that phagocytosis of erythrocytes may contribute to the formation of foam cells.38 Similar lipid-containing cells, expressing both ceroid and inducible nitric oxide synthase, have been generated in an atherosclerosis-free setting by incubating murine macrophages with oxidized erythrocytes. Moreover, erythrophagocytosis as a result of microhemorrhages may have additional consequences; the iron accumulated from the breakdown of hemoglobin can act as a catalyst in the formation of free radicals, which may contribute to the modification of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and cell death.39,40
Our finding of erythrocyte membranes in the necrotic core of advanced coronary atheromas may widen our view regarding the origin of free cholesterol in developing vulnerable lesions. Erythrocyte membranes are capable of providing a substantial amount of lipid and may promote the recruitment of macrophages into the fibrous cap. Therefore, intraplaque hemorrhage represents a critical event in the induction of instability in these lesions.
Supported in part by a research grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01 HL61799-02).
We are indebted to Hedwig Avallone, Lila Adams, and Addis Taye, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, for their excellent technical assistance.
Source Information
From the Department of Cardiovascular Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, D.C. (F.D.K., A.P.B., D.K.W., A.F., R.K., R.V.); the Cardiac Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston (H.K.G., L.J.G., M.H., A.V.F.); the Department of Pathology, University of Maryland, Baltimore (D.R.F.); the Section of Experimental Atherosclerosis, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. (H.S.K.); and Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia (J.N.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Virmani at the Department of Cardiovascular Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Bldg. 54, Rm. 2005, 6825 16th St., Washington, DC 20306-6000, or at virmani@afip.osd.mil.
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