Special Article
Global Trends in Resistance to Antituberculosis Drugs
N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1294-1303April 26, 2001
- Abstract
Background
Data on global trends in resistance to antituberculosis drugs are lacking.
Methods
We expanded the survey conducted by the World Health Organization and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease to assess trends in resistance to antituberculosis drugs in countries on six continents. We obtained data using standard protocols from ongoing surveillance or from surveys of representative samples of all patients with tuberculosis. The standard sampling techniques distinguished between new and previously treated patients, and laboratory performance was checked by means of an international program of quality assurance.
Results
Between 1996 and 1999, patients in 58 geographic sites were surveyed; 28 sites provided data for at least two years. For patients with newly diagnosed tuberculosis, the frequency of resistance to at least one antituberculosis drug ranged from 1.7 percent in Uruguay to 36.9 percent in Estonia (median, 10.7 percent). The prevalence increased in Estonia, from 28.2 percent in 1994 to 36.9 percent in 1998 (P=0.01), and in Denmark, from 9.9 percent in 1995 to 13.1 percent in 1998 (P=0.04). The median prevalence of multidrug resistance among new cases of tuberculosis was only 1.0 percent, but the prevalence was much higher in Estonia (14.1 percent), Henan Province in China (10.8 percent), Latvia (9.0 percent), the Russian oblasts of Ivanovo (9.0 percent) and Tomsk (6.5 percent), Iran (5.0 percent), and Zhejiang Province in China (4.5 percent). There were significant decreases in multidrug resistance in France and the United States. In Estonia, the prevalence in all cases increased from 11.7 percent in 1994 to 18.1 percent in 1998 (P<0.001).
Conclusions
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis continues to be a serious problem, particularly among some countries of eastern Europe. Our survey also identified areas with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in such countries as China and Iran.
Media in This Article
Table 1
Prevalence of Drug Resistance among New Cases of Tuberculosis, According to Geographic Site, 1996–1999.Table 2
Prevalence of Drug Resistance among Previously Treated Cases of Tuberculosis, According to Geographic Site, 1996–1999.Article Activity
- Article
A survey conducted by the World Health Organization and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease in 35 geographic sites revealed that drug-resistant tuberculosis was ubiquitous.1,2 That survey did not include temporal changes in the prevalence of resistance to antituberculosis drugs, since data were available for only one year from each of the sites surveyed. In some countries with high burdens of tuberculosis, such as China, India, and Russia, surveys were conducted only in one administrative unit, if at all.3 The global survey has now been expanded to assess trends and provide a more representative estimate of the global magnitude of the problem of drug-resistant tuberculosis.
Methods
Methods previously described are summarized here,1,2 and changes and new developments are described in detail. The new surveillance projects or surveys were conducted between 1996 and 1999. Data on temporal changes are from geographic sites that provided data for at least two time points between 1994 and 1999. Standard methods of surveillance were used.4 Surveillance of drug resistance adhered to three principles: the samples of patients with tuberculosis in each country or region (e.g., state or province) were representative of that geographic site; recommended microbiologic methods were used by national laboratories that were monitored by an international system of proficiency testing; and in almost all countries, new cases were distinguished from previously treated cases.
New cases of tuberculosis were defined as incident cases in patients who, in response to direct questioning, denied having had previous antituberculosis treatment or having been treated for one month or more and, in countries where adequate documentation was available, for whom there was no evidence of a history of such treatment. Drug resistance among new cases was defined as the presence of resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in new cases of tuberculosis. Drug resistance among previously treated cases was defined as the absence of a response in patients with tuberculosis who had already received antituberculosis therapy for one month or more (as documented in the tuberculosis registry or in medical records or by the account of the patient) and who had begun a retreatment regimen. Previously treated patients included patients who had a relapse after having completed successful treatment in the past, patients in whom treatment failed, patients who returned to a health care provider after having discontinued treatment, and patients with chronic tuberculosis who had positive sputum smears after the completion of two fully supervised courses of treatment. These definitions are presented elsewhere.5 Multidrug resistance was defined as resistance to at least isoniazid and rifampin.
Interlaboratory monitoring of the proficiency of testing for susceptibility to isoniazid, rifampin, streptomycin, and ethambutol has been conducted annually since 1994 within a network of 23 supranational reference laboratories. The methods used by the participating laboratories to test drug susceptibility include the absolute-concentration method, the resistance-ratio method, and the proportion method and its variants, including the BACTEC 460 radiometric culture method.1,6,7 Descriptions of the methods and the early results of this program of proficiency testing have been published elsewhere.7
For each survey, the target population consisted of all registered patients in the survey area with sputum-smear–positive cases of tuberculosis. All newly registered patients with such cases were eligible for inclusion. In most countries, the survey area was the entire country. The calculation of the required sample size for surveys followed standard guidelines for the surveillance of drug resistance in tuberculosis.4 The required sample size was calculated on the basis of the expected prevalence of resistance to rifampin among new cases of tuberculosis, which, in turn, was estimated on the basis of data from previous studies or from the national tuberculosis programs. In countries that were conducting surveillance of drug resistance, all registered patients with tuberculosis were enrolled for testing. Sites that provided data for two or more time points conducted their surveillance or surveys in similar populations of patients with new cases of tuberculosis and sampled them over time. Similar protocols, including similar sampling techniques and similar populations sampled between surveys, were used to ensure the comparability of populations.
Testing of drug susceptibility was performed by the national reference laboratory, which was linked to one supranational reference laboratory for the validation of data. The results for a subsample of all strains tested were validated and confirmed by the supranational laboratory.
Statistical Analysis
The software packages Epi Info (version 6.04, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta) and SPSS for Windows (version 7.5.2, SPSS, Chicago) were used for the analyses. Median values were calculated for the prevalence of drug resistance among new cases, among previously treated cases, for individual drugs, and for pertinent combinations. Data on prevalence are from the latest year of surveillance or survey in each participating site. The analysis of trends focused on drug resistance found in new cases and previously treated cases. The standard chi-square test and Fisher's exact test were used for the comparison of two data points (proportions), and the chi-square test for trends was used for the comparison of three or more data points. The coverage of the global project was estimated with the use of data on tuberculosis notification that were reported to the World Health Organization,8-12 and the population figures used for 1997 were those estimated by the United Nations Population Division.13 In the case of geographic sites for which data on the prevalence in two or more years were reported, only the latest one was used in the calculation of coverage. When surveys were conducted in administrative units of large countries (states, provinces, or oblasts), only the tuberculosis cases and populations of these administrative units were used in the calculation of coverage.
Results
Prevalence
Between 1996 and 1999, patients were surveyed in 58 geographic sites, in 54 of which there was drug-resistant tuberculosis among new cases and in 48 of which there was drug-resistant tuberculosis among previously treated cases. Australia, Belgium, Canada, and Israel reported drug resistance but did not distinguish between new and previously treated cases. The surveillance and surveys conducted in this phase of the global project tested a total of 61,415 patients with tuberculosis (median per geographic site, 661; range, 41 [Northern Ireland] to 12,675 [United States]). These geographic sites accounted for approximately 610,000 of the 3.3 million cases of tuberculosis reported to the World Health Organization in 1997 (18 percent) and 1.5 billion of the world's 5.8 billion inhabitants (26 percent). Proficiency testing in 1998 by the supranational reference laboratories of susceptibility to the four drugs for which the national laboratories tested showed an overall sensitivity of 98 percent and an overall specificity of 95 percent.
Among new cases of tuberculosis, the prevalence of resistance to at least one drug ranged from 1.7 percent in Uruguay to 36.9 percent in Estonia (median, 10.7 percent) (Table 1Table 1
Prevalence of Drug Resistance among New Cases of Tuberculosis, According to Geographic Site, 1996–1999.). The prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis ranged from 0 percent in eight sites to 14.1 percent in Estonia (median, 1.0 percent). The prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis was also high in Henan Province, China (10.8 percent), Latvia (9.0 percent), the Russian oblasts of Ivanovo (9.0 percent) and Tomsk (6.5 percent), Iran (5.0 percent), and Zhejiang Province, China (4.5 percent). The prevalence of resistance to a single drug ranged from 1.3 percent in the Czech Republic to 17.9 percent in Sierra Leone (data not shown). Resistance to all four drugs for which testing was conducted ranged from 0 percent in 24 sites to 8.5 percent in Estonia (data not shown).Among previously treated cases of tuberculosis, the prevalence of resistance to at least one drug ranged from 0 percent in Finland to 93.8 percent in Uruguay (median, 23.3 percent) (Table 2Table 2
Prevalence of Drug Resistance among Previously Treated Cases of Tuberculosis, According to Geographic Site, 1996–1999.). The prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among previously treated cases ranged from 0 percent in four sites to 48.2 percent in Iran (median, 9.3 percent). The median prevalence of resistance to a single drug was 11.3 percent, and the median prevalence of resistance to all four drugs was 1.8 percent (data not shown).Temporal Changes
Data from two or more years were available from 28 of the 58 geographic sites. Of these sites, 24 provided data on new cases of tuberculosis, 20 provided data on previously treated cases, and 4 did not distinguish between the two types of cases. Table 3Table 3
Trends in Drug Resistance among New and Previously Treated Cases of Tuberculosis. shows trends among new and previously treated cases. Among countries with data available for three or more years, there was a statistically significant upward trend in the prevalence of resistance to any drug among new cases in Estonia, from 28.2 percent in 1994 to 36.9 percent in 1998 (P=0.01 for the trend across three data points), and in Denmark, from 9.9 percent in 1995 to 13.1 percent in 1998 (P=0.04 for the trend across four data points). Of the sites with data available for two years, Peru, New Zealand, and Germany had significant increases in the proportions of drug-resistant tuberculosis among new cases, whereas Barcelona (Spain) and Switzerland had significant decreases. Although no significant increases occurred in Latvia, Estonia, and the Russian oblast of Ivanovo, a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (9.0 percent or higher in all sites) was still found among new cases in the most recent year of surveillance. France and the United States reported significant decreases.Among previously treated cases, there was no evidence of an increase in the prevalence of resistance to at least one drug. There were, in fact, statistically significant decreases in Cuba, England and Wales, Peru, and the Republic of Korea. In Estonia, the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among previously treated cases increased from 19.2 percent in 1994 to 37.8 percent in 1998 (P=0.04). The prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among all cases increased in Estonia from 11.1 percent in 1994 to 18.1 percent in 1998 (P<0.001, data not shown).
Discussion
We attempted to quantify global trends in resistance to antituberculosis drugs by means of standard epidemiologic and microbiologic methods. Our findings indicate that multidrug-resistant tuberculosis continues to be a serious problem in countries of eastern Europe — especially Estonia, Latvia, and Russia. Such findings suggest the continued creation and increased circulation of drug-resistant strains due to poor tuberculosis control, which poses a threat to other countries. Trends in the Russian oblast of Ivanovo confirm that the situation is critical, and the high prevalence of drug resistance found in the newly surveyed oblast of Tomsk, in Siberia, shows that the problem exists in other parts of the country and may be widespread throughout Russia. There are newly identified areas with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in heavily populated countries such as China and Iran, which indicates that the creation of highly resistant strains of M. tuberculosis is not limited to one part of the world.
Since multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is associated with higher rates of failure and death than is drug-susceptible tuberculosis14 and is more difficult and expensive to treat,15 great pressure is being put on the health care systems of these countries. They should immediately adopt or expand programs of tuberculosis control by making use of proven and cost-effective interventions such as the directly-observed-treatment, short-course strategy of the World Health Organization.16 The use of second-line drugs to cure multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and to reduce further transmission should be considered, but only as part of well-structured programs of tuberculosis control. Trials to assess the feasibility and cost effectiveness of the use of second-line drugs in settings with limited resources are currently being conducted as part of a new international initiative to manage multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.17
There is, however, reassuring news from this phase of the global project. There were no significant increases in the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among new cases in Botswana, Chile, Cuba, Czech Republic, Denmark, England and Wales, Finland, France, Germany, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Korea, Peru, Scotland, Sierra Leone, Spain (Barcelona), Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. Many of these areas have been able to maintain high cure rates for tuberculosis.18-22
In the Americas, all the countries that were surveyed for the first time in this phase of the project — including Canada, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Uruguay, and Venezuela — showed no signs of a serious problem. Most African countries surveyed — even those with a high incidence of human immunodeficiency virus–related tuberculosis — were not seriously affected by multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.23,24 This low prevalence could be the result of various factors, including the recent introduction of rifampin in these countries, the use of rifampin-free treatment regimens in the continuation phase of therapy, and the growing use of direct observation of treatment.25,26 Lack of access to treatment may also contribute to the low prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Several countries in Africa with a very high incidence of tuberculosis — including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, and Nigeria — have not yet been surveyed.27 Thus, more data are needed to produce a balanced picture of drug resistance in Africa.
In western Europe, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is not a major public health problem. Among new cases in Denmark and Germany, there were increases in the prevalence of resistance to at least one drug. An increase in the transmission of strains resistant to streptomycin and isoniazid has been reported among persons in Denmark who are 25 to 54 years of age.28 A higher prevalence of drug resistance among immigrants has also increased the overall prevalence in these countries.28,29 The increase in the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Australia could be due to a large influx of immigrants from neighboring countries where the prevalence is high.30
The two most populous countries, China and India, account for an estimated 3.1 million of the world's estimated 8.0 million incident cases of tuberculosis (39 percent).31 It has been estimated that 75 percent of the cases worldwide occur in five countries in Asia. The spread of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Asia could seriously hamper global efforts to control tuberculosis. The high prevalence of drug-resistant tuberculosis in this region emphasizes the need for a rapid expansion of the directly-observed-treatment, short-course strategy, which is being used for only 44 percent of the population of this region.27 Management of multidrug resistance will require the wise use of second-line drugs.
Our data have some limitations. First, more information on the magnitude of drug-resistant tuberculosis is needed from countries with the highest rates of incidence of the disease.31 Of the 22 countries with the highest incidence rates (which account for an estimated 80 percent of all new cases annually), only 11 have relevant data available. It is therefore necessary to continue expanding surveillance efforts in these countries. Second, selection bias and misclassification of previously treated cases as new cases cannot be completely ruled out in some of the participating sites. Third, for some sites, apparent decreases in the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among previously treated cases could be related to sampling bias between surveys. For surveys of drug resistance, the required sample size is normally calculated only for new cases, because the proportion of patients with previously treated cases is usually a small fraction of the total number of patients registered for treatment in the geographic site.
A paradox was observed in countries that have had good tuberculosis-control programs for many years. In countries such as Uruguay and Cuba, almost all previously treated patients had drug-resistant tuberculosis, but there were only small numbers of such patients. Therefore, a very small number of drug-resistant, previously treated cases should not be regarded as a sign of the failure of a control program.32 Finally, several sites provided data for only two time points, which can only suggest a trend.
Despite such limitations, we attempt to present follow-up data on the magnitude of drug resistance around the world. The 58 new sites recruited to the study represent a 65 percent increase in the number of countries that have been surveyed.1 The follow-up data confirm that the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is still alarmingly high in some countries in eastern Europe. Newly surveyed areas with a high prevalence have also been identified, suggesting that drug resistance is not limited to eastern Europe.
Measures to manage multidrug-resistant tuberculosis are urgently needed, but these will be successful only if the management of drug-susceptible tuberculosis, which accounts for the large majority of cases, is also successful.33 Thus, if proper case management of drug-susceptible tuberculosis with first-line treatment regimens cannot be guaranteed,34-36 the use of second-line drugs should be discouraged. The undisciplined use of both first- and second-line drugs will lead to the further spread of untreatable disease.
Supported by a grant from the United States Agency for International Development.
We are indebted to the national authorities in the participating countries and the institutions that hosted the national and international laboratories; to Dr. Eduardo Netto for his help with the analysis; and to Corazon Dolores and Zahra Ali-Piazza for secretarial assistance.
Source Information
From the Communicable Diseases Cluster, World Health Organization, Geneva (M.A.E., L.S., C.D., R.W., M.C.R.); the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Paris (A.L., H.L.R.); the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control, Ottawa, Ont., Canada (A.L.); the Institut Pasteur, Algiers, Algeria (F.B.); the Korean Institute of Tuberculosis, Seoul, Republic of Korea (S.J.K.); the Instituto Panamericano de Protección de Alimentos y Zoonosis, Buenos Aires, Argentina (A.R.); the Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Stockholm (S.H.); and the Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta (N.B.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Espinal at Communicable Diseases Control, Prevention, and Eradication, World Health Organization, 20 Ave. Appia, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland, or at espinalm@who.int.
Other members of the group are listed in the Appendix.
Appendix
The following members of the World Health Organization–International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Working Group on Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance also participated in the study:Australia — D. Dawson, W. Chew, F. Haverkort, R. Lumb, A. Sievers; Belgium — M. Fauville Dufaux, M. Wanlin, M. Uydebrouck, F. Portaels; Botswana — M. Mwasekaga, T. Kenyon, E. Talbot; Canada — H. Njoo, P. Nault; Central African Republic (Bangui) — E. Kassa-Kelembho; Chile — P. Valenzuela, S. Piffardi; China (Beijing) — D. Hong-jin, W. Sumin, Z. Ben; China (Guangdong Province) — Z. Qiu, Q. Ming, L. Hong-qiao; China (Henan Province) — W. Guobin, P. Vili, Z. Guolong, Z. Li; China (Shandong Province) — Z. Sheng, G. Xiang, Z. Guo; China (Zhejiang Province) — L.. Qun, W. Xiaomeng, H. Haibo; Colombia — C. Leon Franco, M. Irinirida, C. Sierra, N. Naranjo, M. Garzon; Cuba — J. Valdivia, E. Montoro, A. Marrero Figueroa; Czech Republic — M. Havelková, O. OšŤádal; Denmark — V. Thomsen, S. Glisman; Estonia — A. Krüüner, K. Vink, M. Danilovich; Finland — M. Viljanen, M. Kokki, P. Ruutu; France — J. Grosset, V. Vincent, B. Carbonnelle, J. Robert; Germany — M. Forßohm, S. Ruesch-Gerdes, K. Feldmann, G. Bretzel; Guinea — B. Mamadou Dian, O. Younoussa Sow, D. Aliomou; Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China — M. Kai, M. Cheuk; India (Tamil Nadu State) — C. Paramasivan, K. Bhaskaran, P. Venkataraman, T. Frieden; Iran — M.-R. Masjedi, A.-A. Velayati, M. Bahadori, S. Javad Tabatabaii; Israel — D. Chemtob, O. Dreazen; Italy — G. Migliori, G. Besozzi, A. Cassone, G. Orefici, L. Fattorini, E. Iona; Japan — C. Abe; Latvia — J. Leimans, V. Leimane, D. Mihalovska; Malaysia — I. Kuppusamy, D. Padmini, S. Ramayah; Mexico — A. Santaella-Solis, S. Balandrano Campos, A. Flisser Steinbruch, R. Granich; Morocco — S.-E. Ottmani, J. Mahjour, P. Chaulet; Mozambique — A. MacArthur, P. Perdigao, S. Gloyd; Nepal — D. Singh Bam, P. Malla, I. Smith; the Netherlands — B. van Klingeren, C. Lambregts-van Weezenbeek, N. Kalisvaart; New Caledonia — P. Duval; New Zealand — M. Brett, R. Vaughan, M. Carr, C. Tocker; Nicaragua — L. Chacon, J. Cruz; Norway — E. Heldal, N. Brattås, P. Sandven; Oman — A. Ahmed Ba Omar, S. Al-Awan, S. Al-Busaidy, J. George; Peru — L. Vàsquez Campos, J. Portocarrero Céliz, P. Suarez; Poland — Z. Zwolska, K. Roszkowski; Puerto Rico — O. Joglar; Republic of Korea — G.-H. Bai; Russia (Ivanovo Oblast) — A. Khomenko (deceased), M. Stoyunin, N. Katulina, I. Danilova, V. Golyshevskaya; Russia (Tomsk Oblast) — A. Sloutsky, A. Goldfarb, T. Healing, M. Kimerling; Sierra Leone — L. Westman, A. George; Singapore — J. Yap, I. Snodgrass; Slovakia — M. Svejnochová, E. Rajecová, L. Chovan; Slovenia — M. Žolnir-Dovč, J. Sorli, D. Eržen; South Africa — K. Weyer; Spain (Barcelona) — N. Martin-Casabona; Sweden — G. Källenius, V. Romanus; Switzerland — P. Helbling, G. Pfyffer, J.-P. Zellweger; Thailand — V. Payanandana, D. Rienthong, S. Rienthong, L. Ratanavichit, H. Sawert; Uganda — F. Adatu, M. Aziz, H.-U. Wendl-Richter, T. Aisu; United Kingdom — J. Watson, F. Drobniewski, J. Herbert, P. Christie, B. Watt, B. Smyth, M. Crowe; United States — E. McCray, I. Onorato, B. Metchock, K. Laserson, A. Pablos-Méndez, D. Cohn, E. Brenner; Uruguay — V. Cuesta Aramburu, C. Rivas; Venezuela — R. Armengol, A. Guilarte, L. Albina Vázquez de Salas; World Health Organization — P. Nunn, R. Rodriguez, A. Seita, L. Blanc, D. Il Ahn.
- References
References
1
Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance in the world: The WHO/IUATLD Global Project on Anti-tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance 1994–1997. WHO/TB/97.229. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997.
2
Pablos-Mendez A ,Raviglione MC ,Laszlo A , et al. Global surveillance for antituberculosis-drug resistance, 1994-1997. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1641-1649[Erratum, N Engl J Med 1998;339:139.]
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline3
Chan-Tack KM . Antituberculosis-drug resistance. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1079-1079
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline4
WHO/IUATLD
Web of Science5
WHO tuberculosis programme: framework for effective tuberculosis control. WHO/TB/94.179. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1994.
6
Canetti G ,Fox W ,Khomenko A , et al. Advances in techniques of testing mycobacterial drug sensitivity, and the use of sensitivity tests in tuberculosis control programmes. Bull World Health Organ 1969;41:21-43
Web of Science | Medline7
Laszlo A ,Rahman M ,Raviglione M ,Bustreo F . Quality assurance programme for drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the WHO/IUATLD Supranational Laboratory Network: first round of proficiency testing. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1997;1:231-238
Web of Science | Medline8
Global Tuberculosis Programme. Global tuberculosis control: WHO report 1997. WHO/TB/97.225. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997.
9
Global Tuberculosis Programme. Global tuberculosis control: WHO report 1998. WHO/TB/98.237. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998.
10
Global Tuberculosis Programme. Global tuberculosis control: WHO report 1999. WHO/CDS/CPC/TB/99.259. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1999.
11
Raviglione MC ,Dye C ,Schmidt S ,Kochi A . Assessment of worldwide tuberculosis control. Lancet 1997;350:624-629
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline12
Netto EM ,Dye C ,Raviglione MC . Progress in global tuberculosis control 1995-1996, with emphasis on 22 high-incidence countries. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:310-320
Web of Science | Medline13
World population prospects: the 1998 revision. New York: United Nations, 1999.
14
Espinal MA ,Kim SJ ,Suarez PG , et al. Standard short-course chemotherapy for drug-resistant tuberculosis: treatment outcomes in 6 countries. JAMA 2000;283:2537-2545
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline15
Mahmoudi A ,Iseman MD . Pitfalls in the care of patients with tuberculosis: common errors and their association with the acquisition of drug resistance. JAMA 1993;270:65-68
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline16
The World Bank. World development report 1993: investing in health. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
17
Espinal MA ,Dye C ,Raviglione M ,Kochi A . Rational `DOTS plus' for the control of MDR-TB. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:561-563
Web of Science | Medline18
Kenyon TA ,Mwasekaga MJ ,Huebner R ,Rumisha D ,Binkin N ,Maganu E . Low levels of drug resistance amidst rapidly increasing tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus co-epidemics in Botswana. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:4-11
Web of Science | Medline19
Marrero A ,Caminero JA ,Rodriguez R ,Billo NE . Towards elimination of tuberculosis in a low income country: the experience of Cuba, 1962-97. Thorax 2000;55:39-45
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline20
Farga V ,Valenzuela P ,Valenzuela MT ,Yanez A ,Garcia P ,Scheel G . Una década de quimioterapia antituberculosa abreviada en Chile. Rev Chil Enf Respir 1991;7:94-10621
Hong YP ,Kim SJ ,Lew WJ ,Lee SH ,Lee EK . Cohort analyses of the treatment of smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients under programme conditions in Korea, 1983-1994. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1998;2:365-371
Web of Science | Medline22
Bloch AB ,Cauthen GM ,Simone PM ,Kelly GD ,Dansbury KG ,Castro KG . Completion of tuberculosis therapy for patients reported in the United States in 1993. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:273-280
Web of Science | Medline23
De Cock KM ,Chaisson RE . Will DOTS do it? A reappraisal of tuberculosis control in countries with high rates of HIV infection. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:457-465
Web of Science | Medline24
Raviglione MC ,Harries AD ,Msiska R ,Wilkinson D ,Nunn P . Tuberculosis and HIV: current status in Africa. AIDS 1997;11:Suppl B:S115-S123
Medline25
Trebucq A ,Anagonou S ,Gninafon M ,Lambregts K ,Boulahbal F . Prevalence of primary and acquired resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to antituberculosis drugs in Benin after 12 years of short-course chemotherapy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:466-470
Web of Science | Medline26
Chaisson RE ,Coberly JS ,De Cock KM . DOTS and drug resistance: a silver lining to a darkening cloud. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999;3:1-3
Web of Science | Medline27
Global tuberculosis control: WHO report 2000. WHO/CDS/TB/2000.275. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2000.
28
Thomsen VO ,Bauer J ,Lillebaek T ,Glisman S . Results from 8 years of susceptibility testing of clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Denmark. Eur Respir J 2000;16:203-208
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline29
Borchardt J ,Kirsten D ,Jorres R ,Kroeger C ,Magnussen H . Drug-resistant tuberculosis in northern Germany: a retrospective hospital-based study of 1,055 patients from 1984 until 1993. Eur Respir J 1995;8:1076-1083
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline30
Dawson DJ ,Cheah DF ,Chew WK ,Haverkort FC ,Lumb R ,Sievers AS . Tuberculosis in Australia, 1989-1992: bacteriologically confirmed cases and drug resistance. Med J Aust 1995;162:287-290
Web of Science | Medline31
Dye C ,Scheele S ,Dolin P ,Pathania V ,Raviglione MC . Consensus statement: global burden of tuberculosis: estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. JAMA 1999;282:677-686
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline32
Dye C ,Espinal MA . Will tuberculosis become resistant to all antibiotics? Proc R Soc Lond [B] 2001;268:45-52
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline33
Frieden TR ,Fujiwara PI ,Washko RM ,Hamburg MA . Tuberculosis in New York City -- turning the tide. N Engl J Med 1995;333:229-233
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline34
Mitchison DA ,Nunn AJ . Influence of initial drug resistance on the response to short-course chemotherapy of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:423-430
Web of Science | Medline35
Tanzanian/British Medical Research Council
Web of Science | Medline36
Controlled trial of 6-month and 9-month regimens of daily and intermittent streptomycin plus isoniazid plus pyrazinamide for pulmonary tuberculosis in Hong Kong: the results up to 30 months. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977;115:727-735
Web of Science | Medline
- Citing Articles (150)
Citing Articles
1
Abida Shaheen, Muzammil Hasan Najmi, Waseem Saeed, Zia-Ur-Rehman Farooqi. (2012) Pharmacokinetics of standard dose regimens of rifampicin in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Pakistan. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases1-6
CrossRef2
Trent Mortensen, Shujie Shen, FenAnn Shen, Marie K. Walsh, Ronald C. Sims, Charles D. Miller. (2012) Investigating the Effectiveness of St John's Wort Herb as an Antimicrobial Agent against Mycobacteria. Phytotherapy Researchn/a-n/a
CrossRef3
C. H. LIU, H. M. LI, L. LI, Y. L. HU, Q. WANG, N. YANG, S. WANG, B. ZHU. (2011) Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance patterns and trends in a tuberculosis referral hospital, 1997–2009. Epidemiology and Infection 139:12, 1909-1918
CrossRef4
Liaqat Ali Chaudhry, Nagamani Rambhala, Ali Saad Al-Shammri, Jaffar A. Al-Tawfiq. (2011) Patterns of antituberculous drug resistance in Eastern Saudi Arabia: A 7-year surveillance study from 1/2003 to 6/2010. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health
CrossRef5
Jee-Hyun Yoon, Ji-Sun Nam, Kyung-Jin Kim, Yeonim Choi, Hyeyoung Lee, Sang-Nae Cho, Young-Tae Ro. (2011) Molecular characterization of drug-resistant and -susceptible Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated from patients with tuberculosis in Korea. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease
CrossRef6
CHIH-WEI LIN, IH-JEN SU, JIA-RU CHANG, YIH-YUAN CHEN, JANG-JIH LU, HORNG-YUNN DOU. (2011) Recombinant BCG coexpressing Ag85B, CFP10, and interleukin-12 induces multifunctional Th1 and memory T cells in mice. APMISno-no
CrossRef7
Xiu-fen Yang, Jun Xu, Kai Ma. (2011) Choroidal Tuberculoma in an Immunocompetent Young Patient. Chinese Medical Sciences Journal 26:3, 194-196
CrossRef8
Chih-Cheng Lai, Wei-Lun Liu, Che-Kim Tan, Yu-Chuang Huang, Kuei-Pin Chung, Meng-Rui Lee, Po-Ren Hsueh. (2011) Differences in drug resistance profiles of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates causing pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis in a medical centre in Taiwan, 2000–2010. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 38:2, 125-129
CrossRef9
X. Yang, L. Bao, Y. Deng. (2011) A novel recombinant Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guerin strain expressing human granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and Mycobacterium tuberculosis early secretory antigenic target 6 complex augments Th1 immunity. Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica 43:7, 511-518
CrossRef10
Amitabha Chakroborty. (2011) Drug-resistant tuberculosis: an insurmountable epidemic?. Inflammopharmacology 19:3, 131-137
CrossRef11
Jenn-Tyang Chang, Horng-Yunn Dou, Chia-Liang Yen, Ying-Hsun Wu, Ruay-Ming Huang, Huey-Juan Lin, Ih-Jen Su, Chi-Chang Shieh. (2011) Effect of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus on the Clinical Severity and Treatment Outcome in Patients With Pulmonary Tuberculosis: A Potential Role in the Emergence of Multidrug-resistance. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association 110:6, 372-381
CrossRef12
W. Wang, J. Wang, Q. Zhao, N. D. Darling, M. Yu, B. Zhou, B. Xu. (2011) Contribution of rural-to-urban migration in the prevalence of drug resistant tuberculosis in China. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 30:4, 581-586
CrossRef13
U.S. Ezhil Arivudainambi, Thangarajan Durai Anand, Vellasamy Shanmugaiah, Chandran Karunakaran, Ayyappan Rajendran. (2011) Novel bioactive metabolites producing endophytic fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology 61:3, 340-345
CrossRef14
Jorge Zazueta-Beltran, Nidia León-Sicairos, Secundino Muro-Amador, Adrian Flores-Gaxiola, Jorge Velazquez-Roman, Hector Flores-Villaseñor, Adrian Canizalez-Roman. (2011) Increasing drug resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Sinaloa, Mexico, 1997–2005. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 15:4, e272-e276
CrossRef15
Hiroki Ando, Tomoe Kitao, Tohru Miyoshi-Akiyama, Seiya Kato, Toru Mori, Teruo Kirikae. (2011) Downregulation of katG expression is associated with isoniazid resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Molecular Microbiology 79:6, 1615-1628
CrossRef16
Mercedes Macías Parra, Jesús Kumate Rodríguez, José Luís Arredondo García, Yolanda López-Vidal, Mauricio Castañón-Arreola, Susana Balandrano, Nalin Rastogi, Pedro Gutiérrez Castrellón. (2011) Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex Genotype Diversity and Drug Resistance Profiles in a Pediatric Population in Mexico. Tuberculosis Research and Treatment 2011, 1-9
CrossRef17
Mi Hee Jang, Go Eun Choi, Bo-Moon Shin, Seon Ho Lee, Sung-Ryul Kim, Chulhun L. Chang, Jeong-Man Kim. (2011) Comparison of an Automated Repetitive Sequence-based PCR Microbial Typing System with IS 6110 -Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism for Epidemiologic Investigation of Clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis Isolates in Korea. The Korean Journal of Laboratory Medicine 31:4, 282
CrossRef18
Khadijo Osman, Naveed Ahmed Khan. (2010) A novel in vivo model to screen antimicrobial compounds. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 36:3, 288-289
CrossRef19
Giovanni Battista Migliori, Keertan Dheda, Rosella Centis, Peter Mwaba, Matthew Bates, Justin O’Grady, Michael Hoelscher, Alimuddin Zumla. (2010) Review of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant TB: global perspectives with a focus on sub-Saharan Africa. Tropical Medicine & International Health 15:9, 1052-1066
CrossRef20
Nazia Bibi, Sheraz Ahmad. K. Tanoli, Sadia Farheen, Nighat Afza, Salman Siddiqi, Ying Zhang, Shahana U. Kazmi, Abdul Malik. (2010) In vitro antituberculosis activities of the constituents isolated from Haloxylon salicornicum. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 20:14, 4173-4176
CrossRef21
K. Touray, I. M. Adetifa, A. Jallow, J. Rigby, D. Jeffries, Y. B. Cheung, S. Donkor, R. A. Adegbola, P. C. Hill. (2010) Spatial analysis of tuberculosis in an Urban West African setting: is there evidence of clustering?. Tropical Medicine & International Health 15:6, 664-672
CrossRef22
Go Eun Choi, Mi Hee Jang, Eun Ju Song, Seok Hoon Jeong, Jae-Seok Kim, Wee Gyo Lee, Young Uh, Kyoung Ho Roh, Hye Soo Lee, Jong Hee Shin, Nam Hee Ryoo, Young Ree Kim, Joseph Jeong, Jee Hee Kim, Sun Min Lee, Jongyoun Yi, Sang Hyun Hwang, Hyung Hoi Kim, Eun Yup Lee, Chulhun L. Chang, Moon-Bum Kim, Yeong Dae Kim. (2010) IS 6110 -Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism and Spoligotyping Analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Clinical Isolates for Investigating Epidemiologic Distribution in Korea. Journal of Korean Medical Science 25:12, 1716
CrossRef23
Young Soo Heo, Won Woong Shin, Yong Ju Kim, Hae Jun Song, Chil Hwan Oh. (2010) Annular Lupus Vulgaris Mimicking Tinea Cruris. Annals of Dermatology 22:2, 226
CrossRef24
Farahnoosh Doustdar, Azar Dokht Khosravi, Parissa Farnia. (2009) Mycobacterium tuberculosis Genotypic Diversity in Pyrazinamide-Resistant Isolates of Iran. Microbial Drug Resistance 15:4, 251-256
CrossRef25
Weigang Wu, Qixin Zheng, Xiaodong Guo, Jianhua Sun, Yudong Liu. (2009) A programmed release multi-drug implant fabricated by three-dimensional printing technology for bone tuberculosis therapy. Biomedical Materials 4:6, 065005
CrossRef26
Giovanni Battista Migliori, Morgan D' Arcy Richardson, Giovanni Sotgiu, Christoph Lange. (2009) Multidrug-Resistant and Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in the West. Europe and United States: Epidemiology, Surveillance, and Control. Clinics in Chest Medicine 30:4, 637-665
CrossRef27
Said H. Abbadi, G. Abdel Sameaa, G. Morlock, R.C. Cooksey. (2009) Molecular identification of mutations associated with anti-tuberculosis drug resistance among strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 13:6, 673-678
CrossRef28
I. Suárez-García, A. Rodríguez-Blanco, J. L. Vidal-Pérez, M. A. García-Viejo, M. J. Jaras-Hernández, O. López, A. Noguerado-Asensio. (2009) Risk factors for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in a tuberculosis unit in Madrid, Spain. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 28:4, 325-330
CrossRef29
Pattanawadee UTTAWICHAI, Tsukasa IGARASHI, Seiji KAWANA. (2009) Case of lupus vulgaris diagnosed 50 years after onset. The Journal of Dermatology 36:2, 103-105
CrossRef30
G. Ferrara, B. Bleck, L. Richeldi, J. Reibman, L. M. Fabbri, W. N. Rom, R. Condos. (2008) Mycobacterium tuberculosis Induces CCL18 Expression in Human Macrophages. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 68:6, 668-674
CrossRef31
Farahnoosh Doustdar, Azar Dokht Khosravi, Parissa Farnia, Mohammad Reza Masjedi, Ali Akbar Velayati. (2008) Molecular Analysis of Isoniazid Resistance in Different Genotypes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Isolates from Iran. Microbial Drug Resistance 14:4, 273-279
CrossRef32
Edward D Chan, Michael D Iseman. (2008) Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a review. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 21:6, 587-595
CrossRef33
Tanjore S. Balganesh, Pedro M. Alzari, Stewart T. Cole. (2008) Rising standards for tuberculosis drug development. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 29:11, 576-581
CrossRef34
Beth Temple, Irene Ayakaka, Sam Ogwang, Helen Nabanjja, Susan Kayes, Susan Nakubulwa, William Worodria, Jonathan Levin, Moses Joloba, Alphonse Okwera, Kathleen D. Eisenach, Ruth McNerney, Alison M. Elliott, Peter G. Smith, Roy D. Mugerwa, Jerrold J. Ellner, Edward C. Jones‐López. (2008) Rate and Amplification of Drug Resistance among Previously‐Treated Patients with Tuberculosis in Kampala, Uganda. Clinical Infectious Diseases 47:9, 1126-1134
CrossRef35
A. Apt, T. K. Kondratieva. (2008) Tuberculosis: Pathogenesis, immune response, and host genetics. Molecular Biology 42:5, 784-793
CrossRef36
J. Sheng, J. Li, G. Sheng, H. Yu, H. Huang, H. Cao, Y. Lu, X. Deng. (2008) Characterization of rpoB mutations associated with rifampin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis from eastern China. Journal of Applied Microbiology 105:3, 904-911
CrossRef37
Carlos Acuna‐Villaorduna, Anna Vassall, German Henostroza, Carlos Seas, Humberto Guerra, Lucy Vasquez, Nora Morcillo, Juan Saravia, Richard O’Brien, Mark D. Perkins, Jane Cunningham, Luis Llanos‐Zavalaga, Eduardo Gotuzzo. (2008) Cost‐Effectiveness Analysis of Introduction of Rapid, Alternative Methods to Identify Multidrug‐Resistant Tuberculosis in Middle‐Income Countries. Clinical Infectious Diseases 47:4, 487-495
CrossRef38
W. Weber, R. Schoenmakers, B. Keller, M. Gitzinger, T. Grau, M. Daoud-El Baba, P. Sander, M. Fussenegger. (2008) A synthetic mammalian gene circuit reveals antituberculosis compounds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105:29, 9994-9998
CrossRef39
E. Augustynowicz-Kopeć, T. Jagielski, M. Kozińska, A. Zabost, M. Klatt, Z. Zwolska. (2008) Molecular analysis of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates collected in central Poland. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 14:6, 605-607
CrossRef40
Payam TABARSI, Azar NOORAKI, Mehdi MIRSAEIDI, Majid AMIRI, Parvaneh BAGHAEI, Parisa FARNIA, Mehdi KAZEMPOUR, Hassan HEIDARNAZHAD, Narges ALIPANAH, Davood MANSOURI, Mohammad R. MASJEDI. (2008) Representative drug susceptibility patterns for guiding design of re-treatment regimens for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Iran. Respirology 13:1, 108-111
CrossRef41
Youn Hyoung Nam, Sang Hyun Lee, Young Chang Ahn, Min Ho Cho, Won Cheoul Jang, Su-Min Park, Pil Seung Kwon, Jong Wan Kim. (2008) Detection of Rifampin Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex using Denaturing HPLC. The Korean Journal of Laboratory Medicine 28:2, 95
CrossRef42
F. Drobniewski, S. Rüsch-Gerdes, S. Hoffner. (2007) Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (EUCAST document E.DEF 8.1) − Report of the Subcommittee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis of the European Committee for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID). Clinical Microbiology and Infection 13:12, 1144-1156
CrossRef43
R. Vignesh, P. Balakrishnan, E.M. Shankar, K.G. Murugavel, S. Hanas, A.J. Cecelia, S.P. Thyagarajan, S. Solomon, N. Kumarasamy, K.H. Mayer. (2007) High rate of acquired resistance to tuberculosis among HIV-infected subjects of Chennai, South India. Journal of Infection 55:6, e141-e142
CrossRef44
Elena Vicente, José María Cuadrado, Francisco Mariano Jover, Coral Martín. (2007) Meningitis por Mycobacterium tuberculosis multirresistente de curso fatal: otra cuestión que tener en cuenta. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 25:9, 605-606
CrossRef45
S.-L. Zhang, J.-G. Shen, P.-H. Xu, D.-X. Li, Z.-Q. Sun, L. Li, Z.-R. Yang, Q. Sun. (2007) A novel genotypic test for rapid detection of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates by a multiplex probe array. Journal of Applied Microbiology 103:4, 1262-1271
CrossRef46
Ángel Domínguez-Castellano, Alfonso del Arco, Jesús Canueto-Quintero, Antonio Rivero-Román, José María Kindelán, Ricardo Creagh, Felipe Díez-García. (2007) Guía de práctica clínica de la Sociedad Andaluza de Enfermedades Infecciosas (SAEI) sobre el tratamiento de la tuberculosis. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 25:8, 519-534
CrossRef47
Alberto Matteelli, Giovanni Battista Migliori, Daniela Cirillo, Rosella Centis, Enrico Girard, Mario Raviglione. (2007) Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis : epidemiology and control. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 5:5, 857-871
CrossRef48
V. Bartu. (2007) Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in the Czech Republic: strategy and therapeutic outcomes. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 26:8, 603-605
CrossRef49
P. Pazarli, T. Karagoz, O. Yazicioglu Mocin, D. Duman, G. Akel. (2007) Drug resistance in pulmonary tuberculosis in Turkey. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 26:6, 431-433
CrossRef50
Jose A. Castro-Rodriguez, Javier Mallol, Rosa Andrade, Mónica Muñoz, Ivanna Azzini. (2007) Comparison of tuberculin skin test response after three modalities of neonatal BCG vaccination. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101:5, 493-496
CrossRef51
Gerd Laifer, Andreas F. Widmer, Mathew Simcock, Stefano Bassetti, Andrej Trampuz, Reno Frei, Michael Tamm, Manuel Battegay, Ursula Fluckiger. (2007) TB in a Low-Incidence Country: Differences Between New Immigrants, Foreign-Born Residents and Native Residents. The American Journal of Medicine 120:4, 350-356
CrossRef52
Biswajit Chakrabarti, Peter DO Davies. (2007) Key issues in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Future Microbiology 2:1, 51-61
CrossRef53
Xizhong Zhang, Maziar Divangahi, Patricia Ngai, Michael Santosuosso, James Millar, Anna Zganiacz, Jun Wang, Jonathan Bramson, Zhou Xing. (2007) Intramuscular immunization with a monogenic plasmid DNA tuberculosis vaccine: Enhanced immunogenicity by electroporation and co-expression of GM-CSF transgene. Vaccine 25:7, 1342-1352
CrossRef54
Jae Chol Choi, Song Yong Lim, Gee Young Suh, Man Pyo Chung, Hojoong Kim, O Jung Kwon, Nam Yong Lee, Young Kil Park, Gil Han Bai, Won-Jung Koh. (2007) Drug Resistance Rates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis at a Private Referral Center in Korea. Journal of Korean Medical Science 22:4, 677
CrossRef55
Mohamed Abdel Aziz, Abigail Wright, Adalbert Laszlo, Aimé De Muynck, Françoise Portaels, Armand Van Deun, Charles Wells, Paul Nunn, Leopold Blanc, Mario Raviglione. (2006) Epidemiology of antituberculosis drug resistance (the Global Project on Anti-tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance): an updated analysis. The Lancet 368:9553, 2142-2154
CrossRef56
Jaime E. Ollé-Goig. (2006) Editorial: The treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis ? a return to the pre-antibiotic era?. Tropical Medicine and International Health 11:11, 1625-1628
CrossRef57
Myung Jin Chung, Kyung Soo Lee, Won-Jung Koh, Tae Sung Kim, Eun Young Kang, Sung Mok Kim, O Jung Kwon, Seonwoo Kim. (2006) Drug-sensitive tuberculosis, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, and nontuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary disease in nonAIDS adults: comparisons of thin-section CT findings. European Radiology 16:9, 1934-1941
CrossRef58
Tom G Connell, Molebogeng X Rangaka, Nigel Curtis, Robert J Wilkinson. (2006) QuantiFERON-TB Gold: state of the art for the diagnosis of tuberculosis infection?. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 6:5, 663-677
CrossRef59
S. Lee, D.H. Kong, S.H. Yun, K.R. Lee, K.P. Lee, S.G. Franzblau, E.Y. Lee, C.L. Chang. (2006) Evaluation of a modified antimycobacterial susceptibility test using Middlebrook 7H10 agar containing 2,3-diphenyl-5-thienyl-(2)-tetrazolium chloride. Journal of Microbiological Methods 66:3, 548-551
CrossRef60
MAYSAA EL-SAYED ZAKI, NADIA HASSANIN. (2006) DNA SEQUENCE ANALYSIS OF rpoB GENE MUTATIONS IN RIFAMPICIN-RESISTANT MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS. Journal of Rapid Methods and Automation in Microbiology 14:3, 237-248
CrossRef61
M. Aragó Galindo, A. Belda Mira, A. Albert Contell, B. Serra Sanchís, I. Amorós Quiles, J. Prat Fornells, R. Escoms Trullenque, C. González. (2006) Resistencias de Mycobacterium tuberculosis en el área del Hospital de Sagunto desde 1999 al 2004. Revista Clínica Española 206:8, 376-381
CrossRef62
Dana D Staat, Michael E Klepser. (2006) International Adoption: Issues in Infectious Diseases. Pharmacotherapy 26:9, 1207-1220
CrossRef63
D.W. MacPherson, B.D. Gushulak. (2006) Balancing prevention and screening among international migrants with tuberculosis: Population mobility as the major epidemiological influence in low-incidence nations. Public Health 120:8, 712-723
CrossRef64
M. Tato, E. Gómez-G. de la Pedrosa, R. Cantón, I. Gómez-García, J. Fortún, P. Martín-Davila, F. Baquero, E. Gomez-Mampaso. (2006) In vitro activity of linezolid against Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, including multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium bovis isolates. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 28:1, 75-78
CrossRef65
H. R. van Doorn, P. E. W. de Haas, K. Kremer, C. M. J. E. Vandenbroucke-Grauls, M. W. Borgdorff, D. van Soolingen. (2006) Public health impact of isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains with a mutation at amino-acid position 315 of katG: a decade of experience in The Netherlands. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 0:0, 060620063646004-???
CrossRef66
Thuzar Han. (2006) Effectiveness of standard short-course chemotherapy for treating tuberculosis and the impact of drug resistance on its outcome. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare 4:2, 101-117
CrossRef67
R. Hernàndez Pando, L.D. Aguilar, E. Infante, A. Cataldi, F. Bigi, C. Martin, B. Gicquel. (2006) The use of mutant mycobacteria as new vaccines to prevent tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 86:3-4, 203-210
CrossRef68
Ernesto Montoro, Dihadenys Lemus, Miguel Echemendía, Luisa Armas, Edilberto González-Ochoa, María J. Llanes, José A. Valdivia. (2006) Drug-resistant tuberculosis in Cuba. Results of the three global projects. Tuberculosis 86:3-4, 319-323
CrossRef69
J. Barberán. (2006) Mujer de 58 años con lesión supurativa persistente no dolorosa en mano derecha. Medicine - Programa de Formación Médica Continuada Acreditado 9:56, 3681-3682
CrossRef70
Óscar Sanz-Peláez, José A. Caminero-Luna, José L. Pérez-Arellano. (2006) Tuberculosis e inmigración en España. Evidencias y controversias. Medicina Clínica 126:7, 259-269
CrossRef71
Ruiru Shi, Koji Otomo, Hiroyuki Yamada, Taiga Tatsumi, Isamu Sugawara. (2006) Temperature-mediated heteroduplex analysis for the detection of drug-resistant gene mutations in clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by denaturing HPLC, SURVEYOR nuclease. Microbes and Infection 8:1, 128-135
CrossRef72
Gabriel M. Aisenberg, Kalen Jacobson, Roy F. Chemaly, Kenneth V. Rolston, Isaam I. Raad, Amar Safdar. (2005) Extrapulmonary tuberculosis active infection misdiagnosed as cancer. Cancer 104:12, 2882-2887
CrossRef73
J. Esteban, A. Ortiz, M. S. Jiménez. (2005) Usefulness of E-test strips for testing susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strains. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 24:12, 856-857
CrossRef74
Xing Tang, Sheldon L. Morris, John J. Langone, Larry E. Bockstahler. (2005) Microarray and allele specific PCR detection of point mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis genes associated with drug resistance. Journal of Microbiological Methods 63:3, 318-330
CrossRef75
Nikolai Menner, Ingo Günther, Helmut Orawa, Andreas Roth, Indal Rambajan, Jutta Wagner, Helmut Hahn, Shamdeo Persaud, Ralf Ignatius. (2005) High frequency of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Georgetown, Guyana. Tropical Medicine & International Health 10:12, 1215-1218
CrossRef76
Young Kil Park, Sonya Shin, Sungweon Ryu, Sang Nae Cho, Won-Jung Koh, O Jung Kwon, Young Soo Shim, Woo Jin Lew, Gill Han Bai. (2005) Comparison of drug resistance genotypes between Beijing and non-Beijing family strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Korea. Journal of Microbiological Methods 63:2, 165-172
CrossRef77
A ALANIS. (2005) Resistance to Antibiotics: Are We in the Post-Antibiotic Era?. Archives of Medical Research 36:6, 697-705
CrossRef78
T BREWER, S HEYMANN. (2005) Long Time Due: Reducing Tuberculosis Mortality in the 21 Century. Archives of Medical Research 36:6, 617-621
CrossRef79
Mohamed Abdel Aziz, Abigail Wright. (2005) The World Health Organization/International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Global Project on Surveillance for Anti‐Tuberculosis Drug Resistance: A Model for Other Infectious Diseases. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41:s4, S258-S262
CrossRef80
Emília Valadas, Francisco Antunes. (2005) Tuberculosis, a re-emergent disease. European Journal of Radiology 55:2, 154-157
CrossRef81
Luís Curvo-Semedo, Luísa Teixeira, Filipe Caseiro-Alves. (2005) Tuberculosis of the chest. European Journal of Radiology 55:2, 158-172
CrossRef82
Jennifer J Furin, John L Johnson. (2005) Recent advances in the diagnosis and management of tuberculosis. Current Opinion in Internal Medicine 4:4, 394-399
CrossRef83
Gunes Senol, Berna Komurcuoglu, Ali Komurcuoglu. (2005) Drug resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Western Turkey: a retrospective study from 1100-bed teaching hospital. Journal of Infection 50:4, 306-311
CrossRef84
Marcos Burgos, Leah C. Gonzalez, E. Antonio Paz, Effie Gournis, L. Masae Kawamura, Gisela Schecter, Philip C. Hopewell, Charles L. Daley. (2005) Treatment of Multidrug‐Resistant Tuberculosis in San Francisco: An Outpatient‐Based Approach. Clinical Infectious Diseases 40:7, 968-975
CrossRef85
Roderick J Hay. (2005) Cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis: how has this altered with the changing epidemiology of tuberculosis? editorial review. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 18:2, 93-95
CrossRef86
(2005) Footprints. New England Journal of Medicine 352:5, 516-517
Full Text87
L. Bozeman, W. Burman, B. Metchock, L. Welch, M. Weiner, . (2005) Fluoroquinolone Susceptibility among Mycobacterium tuberculosis Isolates from the United States and Canada. Clinical Infectious Diseases 40:3, 386-391
CrossRef88
Vaira Leimane, Vija Riekstina, Timothy H Holtz, Evija Zarovska, Vija Skripconoka, Lorna E Thorpe, Kayla F Laserson, Charles D Wells. (2005) Clinical outcome of individualised treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Latvia: a retrospective cohort study. The Lancet 365:9456, 318-326
CrossRef89
Lee Jia, Joseph E Tomaszewski, Colleen Hanrahan, Lori Coward, Patricia Noker, Gregory Gorman, Boris Nikonenko, Marina Protopopova. (2005) Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of SQ109, a new diamine-based antitubercular drug. British Journal of Pharmacology 144:1, 80-87
CrossRef90
Suhail Ahmad, Esther Fares. (2005) Genotypic Diversity among Isoniazid-Resistant Isolates of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> from Rashid Hospital in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Medical Principles and Practice 14:1, 16-21
CrossRef91
I. C. SHAMPUTA, L. RIGOUTS AND, F. PORTAELS. (2004) Molecular genetic methods for diagnosis and antibiotic resistance detection of mycobacteria from clinical specimens. APMIS 112:11-12, 728-752
CrossRef92
Phillip Onyebujoh, Graham A. W. Rook. (2004) Focus: Tuberculosis. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2:12, 930-932
CrossRef93
Ted Cohen, Mercedes C. Becerra, Megan B. Murray. (2004) Isoniazid Resistance and the Future of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. Microbial Drug Resistance 10:4, 280-285
CrossRef94
Shelley R. Salpeter, Edwin E. Salpeter. (2004) Screening and Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Among Healthcare Workers at Low, Moderate, and High Risk for Tuberculosis Exposure: A Cost‐Effectiveness Analysis • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 25:12, 1056-1061
CrossRef95
Isik Somuncu Johansen, Vibeke Østergaard Thomsen, Merja Marjamäki, Anaida Sosnovskaja, Bettina Lundgren. (2004) Rapid, automated, nonradiometric susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex to four first-line antituberculous drugs used in standard short-course chemotherapy. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 50:2, 103-107
CrossRef96
Sally M Blower, Tom Chou. (2004) Modeling the emergence of the 'hot zones': tuberculosis and the amplification dynamics of drug resistance. Nature Medicine 10:10, 1111-1116
CrossRef97
Ted Cohen, Megan Murray. (2004) Modeling epidemics of multidrug-resistant M. tuberculosis of heterogeneous fitness. Nature Medicine 10:10, 1117-1121
CrossRef98
S AHMAD. (2004) Rapid detection of ethambutol-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains by PCR-RFLP targeting embB codons 306 and 497 and iniA codon 501 mutations. Molecular and Cellular Probes 18:5, 299-306
CrossRef99
Imelda Bates, Caroline Fenton, Janet Gruber, David Lalloo, Antonieta Medina Lara, S Bertel Squire, Sally Theobald, Rachael Thomson, Rachel Tolhurst. (2004) Vulnerability to malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS infection and disease. Part II: determinants operating at environmental and institutional level. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 4:6, 368-375
CrossRef100
William F Paolo, Joshua D Nosanchuk. (2004) Tuberculosis in New York city: recent lessons and a look ahead. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 4:5, 287-293
CrossRef101
Suhail Ahmad, Eiman Mokaddas. (2004) Contribution of AGC to ACC and other mutations at codon 315 of the katG gene in isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from the Middle East. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 23:5, 473-479
CrossRef102
J. Esteban, J.-J. Granizo, M.-C. Alvarez-Castillo, F. Soriano. (2004) Drug resistance among Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains in immigrants: is there a real threat everywhere?. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 10:4, 335-336
CrossRef103
William A. Rutala, David J. Weber. (2004) Registration of Disinfectants Based on Relative Microbicidal Activity • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 25:4, 333-341
CrossRef104
David Mabey, Rosanna W. Peeling, Andrew Ustianowski, Mark D. Perkins. (2004) Diagnostics for the developing world. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2:3, 231-240
CrossRef105
E. Sherry, P.H. Warnke. (2004) Successful use of an inhalational phytochemical to treat pulmonary tuberculosis: A case report. Phytomedicine 11:2-3, 95-97
CrossRef106
Jean Engohang-Ndong, David Baillat, Marc Aumercier, Flore Bellefontaine, Gurdyal S. Besra, Camille Locht, Alain R. Baulard. (2004) EthR, a repressor of the TetR/CamR family implicated in ethionamide resistance in mycobacteria, octamerizes cooperatively on its operator. Molecular Microbiology 51:1, 175-188
CrossRef107
S. K. Agarwal, S. Gupta, S. C. Dash, D. Bhowmik, S. C. Tiwari. (2004) Prospective randomised trial of isoniazid prophylaxis in renal transplant recipient. International Urology and Nephrology 36:3, 425-431
CrossRef108
Won-Jung Koh, O Jung Kwon, Gee Young Suh, Man Pyo Chung, Hojoong Kim, Nam Yong Lee, Tae Sung Kim, Kyung Soo Lee. (2004) Six-month Therapy with Aerosolized Interferon-γ for Refractory Multidrug-Resistant Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Journal of Korean Medical Science 19:2, 167
CrossRef109
Pontus Juréen, Jim Werngren, Sven E Hoffner. (2004) Evaluation of the line probe assay (LiPA) for rapid detection of rifampicin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 84:5, 311-316
CrossRef110
Joseph Lee, Wing Wai Yew, Chi Fong Wong, Poon Chuen Wong, Clement Shui Wah Chiu. (2003) Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in a lung transplant recipient. The Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation 22:10, 1168-1173
CrossRef111
R Al-Attiyah, A.S Mustafa, A.T Abal, N.M Madi, P Andersen. (2003) Restoration of mycobacterial antigen-induced proliferation and interferon-γ responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of tuberculosis patients upon effective chemotherapy. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology 38:3, 249-256
CrossRef112
S.K. Sharma, K.K. Turaga, A. Balamurugan, P.K. Saha, R.M. Pandey, N.K. Jain, V.M. Katoch, N.K. Mehra. (2003) Clinical and genetic risk factors for the development of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in non-HIV infected patients at a tertiary care center in India: a case-control study. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 3:3, 183-188
CrossRef113
Kim Connelly Smith, Lisa Armitige, Audrey Wanger. (2003) A review of tuberculosis: reflections on the past, present and future of a global epidemic disease. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 1:3, 483-491
CrossRef114
Peter DO Davies, WW Yew. (2003) Recent developments in the treatment of tuberculosis. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs 12:8, 1297-1312
CrossRef115
A. J. Mercer, B. Jacobs, S. Moon, J. Kynch. (2003) Prisons and the tuberculosis epidemic in Russia. Journal of International Development 15:5, 559-574
CrossRef116
Hassan Safi, Bobby J. Gormus, Peter J. Didier, James L. Blanchard, David L. Lakey, Louis N. Martin, Micheal Murphey-Corb, Ramakrishna Vankayalapati, Peter F. Barnes. (2003) Spectrum of Manifestations of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Primates Infected with SIV. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 19:7, 585-595
CrossRef117
D. Almeida, C. Rodrigues, Z. F. Udwadia, A. Lalvani, G. D. Gothi, P. Mehta, A. Mehta. (2003) Incidence of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Urban and Rural India and Implications for Prevention. Clinical Infectious Diseases 36:12, e152-e154
CrossRef118
John Barrett, Thomas Dougherty, Michael Pucci. 2003. Genomics-Based Approaches to Novel Antimicrobial Target Discovery. , 71-96.
CrossRef119
Juan Carlos Rodriguez Dı́az, M. Ruiz, M. López, G. Royo. (2003) Synergic activity of fluoroquinolones and linezolid against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 21:4, 354-356
CrossRef120
Po-Liang Lu, Yi-Whey Lee, Chien-Fang Peng, Jih-Jin Tsai, Yen-Hsu Chen, Kao-Pin Hwang, Tyen-Po Chen. (2003) The decline of high drug resistance rate of pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from a southern Taiwan medical centre, 1996–2000. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 21:3, 239-243
CrossRef121
Thomas R. Frieden, Cynthia R. Driver. (2003) Tuberculosis control: past 10 years and future progress. Tuberculosis 83:1-3, 82-85
CrossRef122
Warwick J Britton, Umaimainthan Palendira. (2003) Improving vaccines against tuberculosis. Immunology and Cell Biology 81:1, 34-45
CrossRef123
Mario C. Raviglione. (2003) The TB epidemic from 1992 to 2002. Tuberculosis 83:1-3, 4-14
CrossRef124
Marcos A. Espinal. (2003) The global situation of MDR-TB. Tuberculosis 83:1-3, 44-51
CrossRef125
David M Rothstein, Arthur D Hartman, Michael H Cynamon, Barry I Eisenstein. (2003) Development potential of rifalazil. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs 12:2, 255-271
CrossRef126
J. B. Nachega, R. E. Chaisson. (2003) Tuberculosis Drug Resistance: A Global Threat. Clinical Infectious Diseases 36:Supplement 1, S24-S30
CrossRef127
Mitnick, Carole, Bayona, Jaime, Palacios, Eda, Shin, Sonya, Furin, Jennifer, Alcántara, Felix, Sánchez, Epifanio, Sarria, Madeleny, Becerra, Mercedes, Fawzi, Mary C. Smith, Kapiga, Saidi, Neuberg, Donna, Maguire, James H., Kim, Jim Yong, Farmer, Paul, . (2003) Community-Based Therapy for Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Lima, Peru. New England Journal of Medicine 348:2, 119-128
Full Text128
D.C.S HUTCHISON, F.A DROBNIEWSKI, H.J MILBURN. (2003) Management of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis. Respiratory Medicine 97:1, 65-70
CrossRef129
Svetoslav Bardarov, Horng Dou, Katherine Eisenach, Niaz Banaiee, S.u Ya, John Chan, William R. Jacobs, Paul F. Riska. (2003) Detection and drug-susceptibility testing of M. tuberculosis from sputum samples using luciferase reporter phage: comparison with the Mycobacteria Growth Indicator Tube (MGIT) system. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 45:1, 53-61
CrossRef130
Pere-Joan Cardona, Sergi Gordillo, Isabel Amat, Jorge Dı́az, Joan Lonca, Cristina Vilaplana, Angeles Pallarés, Roger Llatjós, Aurelio Ariza, Vicenç Ausina. (2003) Catalase–peroxidase activity has no influence on virulence in a murine model of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 83:6, 351-359
CrossRef131
Khan, Kamran, Muennig, Peter, Behta, Maryam, Zivin, Joshua Graff, . (2002) Global Drug-Resistance Patterns and the Management of Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Immigrants to the United States. New England Journal of Medicine 347:23, 1850-1859
Full Text132
K. Christiansen, C. Carbon, O. Cars. (2002) Moving from recommendation to implementation and audit: Part 2. Review of interventions and audit. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 8, 107-128
CrossRef133
R. Vanholder, R. Peleman. (2002) Increased Incidence of Tuberculosis in Immigrant Dialysis Populations. Artificial Organs 26:8, 661-663
CrossRef134
Annika Krüüner, Lea Pehme, Solomon Ghebremichael, Tuija Koivula, Sven E. Hoffner, Marika Mikelsaar. (2002) Use of Molecular Techniques to Distinguish between Treatment Failure and Exogenous Reinfection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases 35:2, 146-155
CrossRef135
Julie Emili, F. Scott, R. E. G. Upshur, M. L. Schmuck, K. R. John. (2002) Attitudes Toward Tuberculosis of Final Year Medical Students From Canada, India, and Uganda. Teaching and Learning in Medicine 14:3, 168-174
CrossRef136
Pedro G Suárez, Katherine Floyd, Jaime Portocarrero, Edith Alarcón, Elisabetta Rapiti, Gilbert Ramos, Cesar Bonilla, Ivan Sabogal, Isabel Aranda, Christopher Dye, Mario Raviglione, Marcos A Espinal. (2002) Feasibility and cost-effectiveness of standardised second-line drug treatment for chronic tuberculosis patients: a national cohort study in Peru. The Lancet 359:9322, 1980-1989
CrossRef137
SM Blower, CL Daley. (2002) Problems and solutions for the Stop TB partnership. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2:6, 374-376
CrossRef138
Elizabeth L Corbett, Richard W Steketee, Feiko O ter Kuile, Ahmed S Latif, Anatoli Kamali, Richard J Hayes. (2002) HIV-1/AIDS and the control of other infectious diseases in Africa. The Lancet 359:9324, 2177-2187
CrossRef139
Abdul Manan Bhutto, Aijaz Solangi, Noor Mohammad Khaskhely, Hajime Arakaki, Shigeo Nonaka. (2002) Clinical and epidemiological observations of cutaneous tuberculosis in Larkana, Pakistan. International Journal of Dermatology 41:3, 159-165
CrossRef140
Geir Hetland, Per Sandven. (2002) β-1,3-Glucan reduces growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophage cultures. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology 33:1, 41-45
CrossRef141
MC Raviglione, A Pio. (2002) Evolution of WHO policies for tuberculosis control, 1948–2001. The Lancet 359:9308, 775-780
CrossRef142
J.Peter Cegielski, Daniel P Chin, Marcos A Espinal, Thomas R Frieden, Rodolfo Rodriguez Cruz, Elizabeth A Talbot, Diana E.C Weil, Richard Zaleskis, Mario C Raviglione. (2002) The global tuberculosis situation: Progress and problems in the 20th century, prospects for the 21st century. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 16:1, 1-58
CrossRef143
S.M. Smith, M.R. Klein, A.S. Malin, J. Sillah, K.P.W.J. McAdam, H.M. Dockrell. (2002) Decreased IFN- γ and increased IL-4 production by human CD8+ T cells in response toMycobacterium tuberculosis in tuberculosis patients. Tuberculosis 82:1, 7-13
CrossRef144
(2002) Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 8:10, no-no
CrossRef145
MARIO C. RAVIGLIONE, RAJESH GUPTA, CHRISTOPHER M. DYE, MARCOS A. ESPINAL. (2001) The Burden of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis and Mechanisms for Its Control. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 953b:1 DRUG-RESISTAN, 88-97
CrossRef146
LEN DOYAL. (2001) Moral Problems in the Use of Coercion in Dealing with Nonadherence in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Tuberculosis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 953b:1 DRUG-RESISTAN, 208-215
CrossRef147
Alimuddin Zumla, John M Grange. (2001) Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis—can the tide be turned?. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 1:3, 199-202
CrossRef148
Jose A. Ainsa, Carlos Martin, Brigitte Gicquel. (2001) Molecular approaches to tuberculosis. Molecular Microbiology 42:2, 561-570
CrossRef149
Richard Coker. (2001) Detention and mandatory treatment for tuberculosis patients in Russia. The Lancet 358:9279, 349-350
CrossRef150
Farmer, Paul, . (2001) The Major Infectious Diseases in the World — To Treat or Not to Treat?. New England Journal of Medicine 345:3, 208-210
Full Text
