Correspondence

The Energy Expended in Chewing Gum

N Engl J Med 1999; 341:2100December 30, 1999

Article

To the Editor:

Indirect evidence suggests that gum chewing may have greater metabolic effects than has been appreciated. The thermic effect of food is reduced when nutrition bypasses the mouth.1 In cows, chewing increases energy expenditure by approximately 20 percent.2,3 We measured how energy expenditure changes with gum chewing in humans.

Energy expenditure was measured in a temperature-controlled, darkened, silent laboratory with an indirect calorimeter (model 229, SensorMedics, Yorba Linda, Calif.) that was calibrated before each measurement with two primary-standard gases (a combination of 4 percent carbon dioxide and 16 percent oxygen and a combination of 26 percent oxygen and a balance of nitrogen) and calibrated for gas flow. Expired air was collected with a specially designed face mask (0.3 by 0.2 by 0.1 m) that allowed unopposed jaw movement. Measurements were performed in seven non-obese subjects with stable weight while they were seated at rest with their arms and legs supported. Energy expenditure was first measured at rest for 30 minutes. The subjects were then provided with 8.4 g of calorie-free gum and instructed to chew at a frequency of precisely 100 Hz (a value than approximates chewing frequency at our institution) with the aid of a metronome. After 12 minutes, the gum was removed from the mouth, and energy expenditure was measured for 12 minutes after chewing.

Mean (±SD) energy expenditure increased in all subjects during chewing, from 58±11 kcal per hour at base line to 70±14 kcal per hour (two-sided P<0.001). After chewing, energy expenditure returned to base line (59±12 kcal per hour) in all subjects (P<0.001). Chewing gum led to a mean increase in energy expenditure of 11±3 kcal per hour (range, 7 to 17), a 19±4 percent increase above base-line values. For perspective, in the same subjects, standing was associated with a mean increase in energy expenditure of 11±11 percent and walking at 1.6 km (1 mile) per hour was associated with an increase of 106±26 percent above base-line values.

Non-nutritional chewing is a behavior that is shared with other primates4 and is a component of nonexercise activity.5 Gum chewing is sufficiently exothermic that if a person chewed gum during waking hours and changed no other components of energy balance, a yearly loss of more than 5 kg of body fat might be anticipated. Chewing of calorie-free gum can be readily carried out throughout the day, and its potential effect on energy balance should not be discounted.

James Levine, M.B., B.S., Ph.D.
Paulette Baukol, B.A.
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905

Ioannis Pavlidis, Ph.D.
Honeywell Technology Center, Minneapolis, MN 55418

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   Marion M. Hetherington, Martin F. Regan. (2011) Effects of chewing gum on short-term appetite regulation in moderately restrained eaters. Appetite 57:2, 475-482
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   Riccardo Dalle Grave, Simona Calugi, Elena Centis, Marwan El Ghoch, Giulio Marchesini. (2011) Cognitive-Behavioral Strategies to Increase the Adherence to Exercise in the Management of Obesity. Journal of Obesity 2011, 1-11
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   Eus J.W. Van Someren. 2011. Age-Related Changes in Thermoreception and Thermoregulation. , 463-478.
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   Darcy L Johannsen, Eric Ravussin. (2008) Spontaneous physical activity: relationship between fidgeting and body weight control. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity 15:5, 409-415
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   Gilbert Leveille, Kathleen McMahon, Emerita Alcantara, Steven Zibell. (2008) Benefits of Chewing Gum. Nutrition Today 43:2, 75-81
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   Claudio Lorello, Gary S. Goldfield, Éric Doucet. (2008) Methylphenidate Hydrochloride Increases Energy Expenditure in Healthy Adults. Obesity 16:2, 470-472
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   Ross Andersen, Shawn Franckowiak. 2007. Metabolic Assessment of Overweight Patients. , 847-867.
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   James A. Levine. (2004) Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT). Nutrition Reviews 62, S82-S97
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    James A. Levine. (2003) Non-exercise activity thermogenesis. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62:03, 667-679
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    James A. Levine. (2002) Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 16:4, 679-702
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