Original Article
A Comparison of Four Treatments for Generalized Convulsive Status Epilepticus
N Engl J Med 1998; 339:792-798September 17, 1998
- Abstract
Background and Methods
Although generalized convulsive status epilepticus is a life-threatening emergency, the best initial drug treatment is uncertain. We conducted a five-year randomized, double-blind, multicenter trial of four intravenous regimens: diazepam (0.15 mg per kilogram of body weight) followed by phenytoin (18 mg per kilogram), lorazepam (0.1 mg per kilogram), phenobarbital (15 mg per kilogram), and phenytoin (18 mg per kilogram). Patients were classified as having either overt generalized status epilepticus (defined as easily visible generalized convulsions) or subtle status epilepticus (indicated by coma and ictal discharges on the electroencephalogram, with or without subtle convulsive movements such as rhythmic muscle twitches or tonic eye deviation). Treatment was considered successful when all motor and electroencephalographic seizure activity ceased within 20 minutes after the beginning of the drug infusion and there was no return of seizure activity during the next 40 minutes. Analyses were performed with data on only the 518 patients with verified generalized convulsive status epilepticus as well as with data on all 570 patients who were enrolled.
Results
Three hundred eighty-four patients had a verified diagnosis of overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus. In this group, lorazepam was successful in 64.9 percent of those assigned to receive it, phenobarbital in 58.2 percent, diazepam and phenytoin in 55.8 percent, and phenytoin in 43.6 percent (P=0.02 for the overall comparison among the four groups). Lorazepam was significantly superior to phenytoin in a pairwise comparison (P=0.002). Among the 134 patients with a verified diagnosis of subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus, no significant differences among the treatments were detected (range of success rates, 7.7 to 24.2 percent). In an intention-to-treat analysis, the differences among treatment groups were not significant, either among the patients with overt status epilepticus (P=0.12) or among those with subtle status epilepticus (P=0.91). There were no differences among the treatments with respect to recurrence during the 12-hour study period, the incidence of adverse reactions, or the outcome at 30 days.
Conclusions
As initial intravenous treatment for overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus, lorazepam is more effective than phenytoin. Although lorazepam is no more efficacious than phenobarbital or diazepam and phenytoin, it is easier to use.
Media in This Article
Figure 1
Rate of Successful Initial Treatment with Each of the Four Regimens.Table 1
Drug Doses, Rates of Administration, and Composition of Drug-Treatment Kits.Article Activity
- Article
Status epilepticus is a life-threatening emergency that affects 65,0001 to 150,0002 people in the United States each year. Generalized convulsive status epilepticus is the most common and most dangerous type.
Phenobarbital,3-5 phenytoin,6-14 diazepam plus phenytoin,15,16 and lorazepam17-28 have been advocated for the initial treatment of generalized convulsive status epilepticus, and each is used by a substantial number of physicians.3 There are few data from controlled trials, however, to document the efficacy of these treatments, and they have not been directly compared. We therefore undertook this study to compare the efficacy of standard doses of these four drugs in the treatment of generalized convulsive status epilepticus.
Methods
Study Design
In a double-blind study conducted at 16 Veterans Affairs medical centers and 6 affiliated university hospitals between July 1, 1990, and June 30, 1995, patients with generalized convulsive status epilepticus were randomly assigned to receive intravenous treatment with lorazepam, phenobarbital, phenytoin, or diazepam followed by phenytoin.
Overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus was defined as recurrent convulsions without complete recovery between seizures, and subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus as the stage of generalized convulsive status when the patient is in continuous coma but only subtle motor convulsions are seen.29 Patients were classified as having one of these two types of status epilepticus according to the following operational definitions. Overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus was considered present when there were two or more generalized convulsions, without full recovery of consciousness between seizures, or continuous convulsive activity for more than 10 minutes (treatment after 10 minutes of continuous seizure activity was considered essential to protect against neuronal and systemic damage from ongoing seizure activity). Subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus was considered present when the patient had coma and ictal discharges on the electroencephalogram,30 with or without subtle convulsive movements (rhythmic twitching of the arms, legs, trunk, or facial muscles; tonic eye deviation; or nystagmoid eye jerking). If the investigator required an electroencephalogram to diagnose generalized convulsive status epilepticus, the patient was considered to have subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus.
The key criterion for study entry was evidence of overt or subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus at the time of evaluation, regardless of prior drug treatment. Patients who had received treatment and whose seizures had stopped were not eligible for inclusion. Other exclusion criteria included status epilepticus of a type other than generalized convulsive, an age of less than 18 years, pregnancy, a neurologic emergency requiring immediate surgical intervention, and the presence of a specific contraindication to therapy with hydantoin, benzodiazepine, or barbiturate drugs. If patients with repeated episodes of generalized convulsive status epilepticus were inadvertently enrolled more than once, only the first episode was included in the analysis.
A blood sample was obtained before treatment for hematologic and serum-chemistry tests and for screening for antiepileptic drugs. Intravenous access was established with normal saline. The order of the treatments was determined by random assignment. Separate randomization schemes were used at each site for each type of status epilepticus. Treatment kits were placed at three or four locations within each participating center, and for each patient the lowest-numbered kit at the location nearest to the patients was used. Electroencephalographic recording was started as soon as possible after the initiation of the protocol, but treatment was never delayed until the electroencephalogram could be obtained unless it was necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, level of consciousness, and seizure activity were recorded every 5 minutes for the first 20 minutes after the drug infusion began and then every 10 minutes for the next 40 minutes. Seizure activity and level of consciousness were recorded every hour thereafter until the completion of the 12-hour study period. Blood was obtained before the initial infusion, at the completion of the infusion, and 2 hours and 12 hours after the start of the infusion for the measurement of anticonvulsant-drug concentrations.
Treatment was considered successful if all clinical and electrical evidence of seizure activity stopped within 20 minutes after the start of the infusion and did not recur during the period from 20 to 60 minutes after the start of treatment. Electrical seizure activity included any of the five ictal patterns described previously.30
Informed Consent
From the institutional review board at each participating hospital, we obtained approval for the study and permission to waive the requirement for informed consent until after the initial randomized treatment. The rationale for the waiver was that the four study treatments were the four best treatments then available, and the patient was assumed to want the best available treatment. Because there were insufficient data to guide the selection of one treatment over another, any of the four treatments could be considered the best. Informed consent for continued participation in the study was obtained from the patient or a family member or other surrogate after initial treatment. Most patients were not competent to give informed consent during the 12-hour study period; some never recovered sufficiently to be able to provide consent. In such cases, consent was obtained from a surrogate, if one was available. State laws and institutional review board regulations regarding surrogate consent were adhered to at all sites. Consent was written, unless oral consent was permitted by a specific institution.
Drug Treatment
Phenytoin (Dilantin, Parke-Davis, Morris Plains, N.J.), phenobarbital (Spectrum Chemical, Gardena, Calif.), and diazepam (Valium, Hoffmann–LaRoche, Nutley, N.J.) were packaged in identical vials at appropriate concentrations so each of the drugs could be administered at a rate of 1 ml per minute to produce the maximal rates of drug infusion shown in Table 1Table 1
Drug Doses, Rates of Administration, and Composition of Drug-Treatment Kits.. Lorazepam (Ativan, Wyeth–Ayerst, Philadelphia) was administered by means of Tubex injection at a maximal rate of 0.5 ml per minute.Identical-appearing drug-treatment kits were prepared for each drug regimen, with each kit containing a first, a second, and a third treatment box. The first treatment box consisted of one Tubex syringe and five vials, labeled A through E. A nomogram, based on the patient's weight, was used to determine the volume of solution administered from the Tubex and from each vial to produce the desired dose without compromising the blinded nature of the study. The Tubex solution and the solution from vial A were injected simultaneously. Tubexes and vials with active drug contained propylene glycol, as did dummy Tubexes; dummy vials contained normal saline. The second and third treatment boxes were provided to allow subsequent treatment, if necessary, without revealing the identity of the study drug. Active drugs in the second and third boxes for each treatment regimen are listed in Table 1.
Central Review
We used a central procedure for review of electroencephalograms and data verification to ensure consistency among the hospitals in the diagnosis and classification of generalized convulsive status epilepticus and the determination of treatment success. A committee consisting of the study chairman, project director, and electroencephalographer reviewed all clinical data and electroencephalographic recordings obtained during the 12-hour study period. Differences of opinion between the central committee and investigators at the study sites were resolved by discussion. The review committee remained blinded to the identity of the treatment drug in each case until the review of all cases was completed.
Statistical Analysis
The study was designed to analyze the patients with overt and subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus separately, because we anticipated a significant difference in outcome in the two groups. Analyses were performed both on an intention-to-treat basis, with all enrolled patients included, and with only patients included who had a verified diagnosis of generalized convulsive status epilepticus. The intention-to-treat analyses included patients who were mistakenly assigned to the wrong status group (e.g., overt instead of subtle status epilepticus), had other types of status epilepticus, or did not actually have status epilepticus. In the intention-to-treat analysis, patients in the last group were classified as having been successfully treated. For the analyses restricted to patients with verified diagnoses, patients were assigned to their correct status group (overt or subtle), as determined by the central review. Patients who did not have generalized convulsive status epilepticus were excluded from the verified-diagnosis analyses. Chi-square techniques were used to analyze rates of treatment success, recurrence, and adverse events. The alpha level was set at 0.05 for analyses of all four treatments, and a two-tailed alpha level of 0.01 was used to determine the significance of differences between any two regimens.31 Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics32 were used for the post hoc combined status-group analyses.
Results
We attempted to enroll all eligible patients at each participating hospital. We screened 1705 patients during the study period; 570 were enrolled (395 with overt status epilepticus and 175 with subtle status epilepticus). Of the 1135 who were not enrolled, 113 were eligible but were not included because the study team was not called. The other 1022 were excluded for one or more of the following reasons: absence of generalized convulsive status epilepticus (868 patients), previous enrollment in the study (41), contraindication to phenytoin therapy (48), contraindication to barbiturate therapy (21), contraindication to benzodiazepine therapy (13), age of less than 18 years (1), pregnancy (1), presence of a neurosurgical emergency (20), and other reasons (236). Fifty-two of the 570 enrolled patients did not have generalized convulsive status epilepticus at the time of randomization. In addition, 18 patients classified as having subtle status epilepticus at randomization actually had overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus. As a result, 384 patients with verified overt status epilepticus and 134 with subtle status epilepticus (total, 518) were included in all the analyses performed in the verified-diagnosis group; all 570 enrolled patients were included in the intention-to-treat analysis. Data on efficacy could not be obtained for five patients with overt status epilepticus.
Table 2Table 2
Base-Line Characteristics of the 518 Patients with Verified Diagnoses, According to Type of Generalized Convulsive Status Epilepticus. summarizes the characteristics of the patients with verified diagnoses. Although there were no significant differences among the four drug-treatment groups in any of the characteristics we examined (data not shown), patients with overt and subtle status epilepticus differed significantly with respect to age, race, current use of anticonvulsants, history of seizures, cause of status epilepticus, functional status before the current episode, whether or not they were veterans, the part of the hospital where treatment took place (emergency room, ward, or intensive care unit), history of status epilepticus, history of excessive alcohol use, and duration of status epilepticus.Table 3Table 3
Doses, Serum Drug Concentrations after First Drug Infusion, and Length of Drug Infusion. gives the mean doses, serum concentrations after infusion, and length of time necessary to complete infusion for each of the four initial treatments. Lorazepam required the least time to infuse (P<0.001 in paired comparisons); the treatments that included phenytoin took the longest (P<0.001).Figure 1AFigure 1
Rate of Successful Initial Treatment with Each of the Four Regimens. and Figure 1Bpresents the results of the four treatment regimens with respect to efficacy. In the analysis of the 518 patients with verified diagnoses (Figure 1A), the first treatment regimen was successful in 55.5 percent of patients with overt status epilepticus, but in only 14.9 percent of those with subtle status epilepticus. Among the patients with overt status epilepticus, chi-square analysis showed a significant difference overall (P=0.02) in the frequency of success among the four treatments, but no differences were detected in the group with subtle status epilepticus (P=0.18). Lorazepam was effective significantly more often than phenytoin (P=0.002) in patients with overt status epilepticus. Other pairwise comparisons did not show significant differences between individual treatments.When the two groups were combined in a post hoc analysis, lorazepam was successful as the first treatment in 52.2 percent of the patients to whom it was administered, phenobarbital in 49.2 percent, diazepam followed by phenytoin in 43.1 percent, and phenytoin alone in 36.8 percent. Chi-square analysis revealed a significant difference (P=0.008) in the frequency of success among treatments. In paired comparisons, lorazepam was effective more often than phenytoin (P=0.001). The difference in efficacy between phenobarbital and phenytoin approached significance (P=0.02). The results of the intention-to-treat analysis (Figure 1B) were similar, but differences between groups were not significant for either the patients with overt status epilepticus (P= 0.12) or those with subtle status epilepticus (P= 0.91). In the verified-diagnosis analysis, status epilepticus recurred during the 12-hour study period in 11 percent (24 of 213) of patients with successfully treated overt status epilepticus and 20 percent (4 of 20) of successfully treated patients with subtle cases. There were no significant differences in the rates of recurrence among the four treatments for either the patients with a verified diagnosis of overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus or those with verified subtle status epilepticus.
The commonly reported side effects of treatment are shown in Table 4Table 4
Frequency of Common Drug-Related Side Effects among the 518 Patients with Verified Diagnoses.. There were no significant differences among the four treatments in either group (those with overt or subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus). However, hypotension requiring treatment occurred more often in the patients with subtle status epilepticus than in those with overt status epilepticus (P<0.001). Sixty-seven of the patients with overt status epilepticus (17 percent) regained full consciousness before the end of the 12-hour study period, with no significant differences among the four treatment groups (P=0.59). None of the patients with subtle status epilepticus completely regained consciousness during the 12-hour study period.Outcomes 30 days after treatment were significantly worse (P<0.001) for patients with subtle status epilepticus. At 30 days, 50.1 percent of patients with overt status epilepticus had been discharged from the hospital, as compared with 8.8 percent of patients with subtle status epilepticus; 22.9 percent of those with overt status epilepticus were still in the hospital, as compared with 26.5 percent of those with subtle status epilepticus; mortality rates were 27.0 percent and 64.7 percent, respectively. There were no significant differences in outcome at 30 days among the four treatments for either the patients with overt status epilepticus or those with subtle status epilepticus. In both the overt and subtle status epilepticus groups, however, patients successfully treated with the first study drug had a better prognosis than did those in whom the first treatment was not successful (for patients with overt status epilepticus, P<0.001; for those with subtle status epilepticus, P=0.01). Among patients with overt and subtle status epilepticus, mortality was twice as high for patients whose status was not controlled with the first drug as for those in whom the first treatment was successful. No other follow-up data were collected.
Discussion
Our results show that lorazepam is more likely than phenytoin to be successful when used as the initial intravenous treatment for overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Although this study was sponsored by the Department of Veterans Affairs, 30 percent of the patients with overt status epilepticus were not veterans, and 18 percent were female, suggesting that our results are widely applicable to the treatment of generalized convulsive status epilepticus in adults.
The lower overall efficacy rates reported here, as compared with data from earlier studies,10-14,16-26 probably result from our including only patients with generalized convulsive status epilepticus and our use of a stringent definition of treatment success: cessation of all clinical and electrical evidence of seizure activity within 20 minutes, with no recurrence during the next 40 minutes. The use of a period longer than 20 minutes in the definition of treatment success was discussed during the development of this protocol, but it was rejected as exposing patients to unnecessary risk. It is desirable that medications for this condition be given in a short intravenous infusion and enter the brain rapidly during infusion. Lorazepam, the most effective drug in the paired comparisons, required the least time to administer. It could be argued that the 20-minute time limit constituted a disadvantage for phenytoin, because of its mandatory slow infusion rate. On the other hand, phenobarbital, which enters the brain slowly,33 was not significantly less effective than lorazepam in patients with overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Thus, it appears that the 20-minute criterion for success does not in itself explain the differences we found.
We found no differences among the treatments in the frequency of recurrence of overt or subtle status epilepticus during the 12-hour study period, suggesting that any of the four treatments, if successful, can protect equally well against recurrence. We also found no differences among the treatments in the incidence of hypotension requiring treatment, respiratory depression, or cardiac-rhythm disturbances in patients with either overt or subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Thus, the risk of these adverse events appears similar with any of the four regimens if the drugs are administered at a safe rate to patients who have been appropriately screened for contraindications. Hypotension requiring treatment occurred more often in the patients with subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus; this difference probably reflects the fact that patients with subtle status epilepticus were sicker than those with overt status epilepticus. Life-threatening medical conditions and cardiopulmonary arrest associated with generalized convulsive status epilepticus were more common among the patients with subtle status epilepticus (Table 2). The longer duration of status epilepticus in the patients with subtle cases (Table 2) may also have contributed to their greater susceptibility to drug-induced hypotension. Even patients with overt status epilepticus had a long delay between onset and treatment. Many of these episodes occurred at night, and paramedics were not called until after several seizures had occurred. For such patients, we considered status epilepticus to have begun at the time of the first seizure.
The rapidity of recovery of consciousness after treatment of status epilepticus is another clinically important factor when choosing a treatment regimen. The small number of patients who recovered fully within 12 hours suggests, however, that rapid, complete recovery may not be a realistic goal when treating generalized convulsive status epilepticus. The condition causing the episode and the effects of repetitive seizure activity also contribute to the impairment of consciousness. Identifying significant differences in the rates at which patients recover from drug-induced impairment of consciousness is difficult, because such a comparison would have to be made in a group of patients in whom the causative factors and duration and intensity of seizures before treatment were identical.
Overall, the patients with subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus did much worse than those with overt generalized convulsive status epilepticus. The first drug treatment was successful in less than 15 percent of the patients with subtle status epilepticus, and their outcome was poor. Sixty-five percent of the patients with subtle status epilepticus died within 30 days after the episode, as compared with 27 percent of the patients with overt status epilepticus. Death in a patient with generalized convulsive status epilepticus is probably attributable largely to the underlying cause and duration of the episode. Nonetheless, successful treatment was significantly associated with improved outcomes in both patients with overt episodes and those with subtle episodes, although it is not clear whether the success of treatment was the cause or the effect of the better prognosis, or a combination of both.
Because even the best treatments were successful in only about two thirds of the patients with overt status epilepticus and one fourth of the patients with subtle status epilepticus, our study underscores the need for better methods of treating generalized convulsive status epilepticus and its underlying causes. Until new therapies become available, however, we recommend lorazepam for the initial intravenous treatment of generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Although lorazepam was no more efficacious than phenobarbital or than diazepam and phenytoin, it is easier to use.
Supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Research Service Cooperative Studies Program (CSP 265). Lorazepam and dummy lorazepam Tubexes used in the study were donated by Wyeth–Ayerst Laboratories.
Drs. Barry, Faught, Ramsay, Treiman, and Uthman serve as consultants to Parke-Davis. They and Drs. Boggs, Calabrese, Kanner, and Rowan also serve on the Parke-Davis speakers bureau. Dr. Treiman has also served as a consultant to Hoffmann–LaRoche and Wyeth–Ayerst.
We are indebted to the members of the Data Monitoring Committee (Timothy Pedley, M.D., Ilo Leppik, M.D., Eric Lothman, M.D., Ph.D. [deceased], Roger D. Porter, M.D., and Gerald VanBelle, Ph.D.) for their careful oversight of the progress of the trial; and to the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program Office staff (Daniel Deykin, M.D., Janet Gold, and Ping Huang, Ph.D.) for their support.
Source Information
From the Neurology Services of the Veterans Affairs Medical Centers in West Los Angeles, Calif. (D.M.T., P.D.M., N.Y.W., A.H.), Bronx, N.Y. (A.J.R.), Birmingham, Ala. (E.F.), Richmond, Va. (V.P.C.), Gainesville, Fla. (B.M.U.), and Miami (R.E.R.), and the Hines Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago (M.B.M.); the Departments of Neurology of the University of California at Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles (D.M.T., N.Y.W.), Mount Sinai College of Medicine, New York (A.J.R.), the University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham (E.F.), the Medical College of Virginia, Richmond (V.P.C.), the University of Florida School of Medicine, Gainesville (B.M.U.), the University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami (R.E.R.), and the Loyola University School of Medicine, Chicago (M.B.M.); the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program Coordinating Center, Perry Point, Md. (J.F.C.); and the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program Clinical Research Pharmacy Coordinating Center, Albuquerque, N.M. (C.C.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Treiman at the Department of Neurology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 97 Paterson St., New Brunswick, NJ 08901-0019.
Other members of the study group are listed in the Appendix.
Other authors were Pratap Yagnik, M.D. (Neurology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Pennsylvania — both in Philadelphia); John C. Jones, M.D. (Neurology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine — both in Madison); Elizabeth Barry, M.D. (Neurology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Neurology, University of Maryland School of Medicine — both in Baltimore); Jane G. Boggs, M.D. (Neurology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Virginia — both in Richmond); and Andres M. Kanner, M.D. (Neurology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine — both in Madison).
Appendix
Additional study participants included other investigators at the study sites: S.D. Collins, S. Dane, S.L. Fish, D.A. Hosford, R.I. Kuzniecky, M. Muxfeldt, H. Price, D. Rosenbaum, M.P. Remler, R.L. Ruff, P.A. Rutecki, M.V. Sowa, M.L. Tomyanovich, and B.J. Wilder; the study coordinators: D. Correll, A. Cugley, P. Encomienda, B. Gallo, K. Hall-Behrman, V. Hamilton, E. Hwang, P. Jarres, A. Mann, J. McWhorter, D. Meija, C. Mixon, M. Moroney, D. Mueller, R. Nemire, K. Ohara, R. Palovcik, R. Reed, M. Shove, L. Tuchman, L. Williams, and H.L. Yoon; staff of the study chairman's office: J. Bejaune, K. Fagan, and C. Stone; staff at the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program Coordinating Center: B. Calvert, R. Horney, D. Preston, and M. Rhoads; staff at the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program Clinical Research Pharmacy Coordinating Center: J. Peterson; and the staff of the central laboratory: E. Esteban, S. Gunawan, Q. Jiang, and V. Pham.
- References
References
1
Hauser WA . Status epilepticus: epidemiologic considerations. Neurology 1990;40:Suppl 2:9-13
Web of Science | Medline2
DeLorenzo RJ ,Pellock JM ,Towne AR ,Boggs JG . Epidemiology of status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol 1995;12:316-325
Web of Science | Medline3
Goldberg MA, McIntyre HB. Barbiturates in the treatment of status epilepticus. In: Delgado-Escueta AV, Wasterlain CG, Treiman DM, Porter RJ, eds. Status epilepticus: mechanisms of brain damage and treatment. Vol. 34 of Advances in neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1983:499-503.
4
Shaner DM ,McCurdy SA ,Herring MO ,Gabor AJ . Treatment of status epilepticus: a prospective comparison of diazepam and phenytoin versus phenobarbital and optional phenytoin. Neurology 1988;38:202-207
Web of Science | Medline5
Crawford TO ,Mitchell WG ,Fishman LS ,Snodgrass SR . Very-high-dose phenobarbital for refractory status epilepticus in children. Neurology 1988;38:1035-1040
Web of Science | Medline6
Murphy JT ,Schwab RS . Diphenylhydantoin (Dilantin) sodium used parenterally in control of convulsions: a five-year report. JAMA 1956;160:385-388
Web of Science | Medline7
McWilliam PKA . Intravenous phenytoin sodium in continuous convulsions in children. Lancet 1958;2:1147-1149
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline8
Carter CH . Use of parenteral diphenylhydantoin (Dilantin) sodium in control of status epilepticus. Arch Neurol Psychiatr 1958;79:136-137
Web of Science9
Wallis W ,Kutt H ,McDowell F . Intravenous diphenylhydantoin in treatment of acute repetitive seizures. Neurology 1968;18:513-525
Web of Science | Medline10
Wilder BJ ,Ramsay RE ,Willmore LJ ,Feussner GR ,Perchalski RJ ,Shumate JB Jr . Efficacy of intravenous phenytoin in the treatment of status epilepticus: kinetics of central nervous system penetration. Ann Neurol 1977;1:511-518
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline11
Cranford RE ,Leppik IE ,Patrick B ,Anderson CB ,Kostick B . Intravenous phenytoin in acute treatment of seizures. Neurology 1979;29:1474-1479
Web of Science | Medline12
Wilder BJ. Efficacy of phenytoin in treatment of status epilepticus. In: Delgado-Escueta AV, Wasterlain CG, Treiman DM, Porter RJ, eds. Status epilepticus: mechanisms of brain damage and treatment. Vol. 34 of Advances in neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1983:441-6.
13
Leppik IE, Patrick BK, Cranford RE. Treatment of acute seizures and status epilepticus with intravenous phenytoin. In: Delgado-Escueta AV, Wasterlain CG, Treiman DM, Porter RJ, eds. Status epilepticus: mechanisms of brain damage and treatment. Vol. 34 of Advances in neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1983:447-51.
14
von Albert H-H. A new phenytoin infusion concentrate for status epilepticus. In: Delgado-Escueta AV, Wasterlain CG, Treiman DM, Porter RJ, eds. Status epilepticus: mechanisms of brain damage and treatment. Vol. 34 of Advances in neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1983:453-6.
15
Sutherland JM, Tait H. The epilepsies: modern diagnosis and treatment. Edinburgh, Scotland: Livingstone, 1969.
16
Delgado-Escueta AV, Enrile-Bacsal F. Combination therapy for status epilepticus: intravenous diazepam and phenytoin. In: Delgado-Escueta AV, Wasterlain CG, Treiman DM, Porter RJ, eds. Status epilepticus: mechanisms of brain damage and treatment. Vol. 34 of Advances in neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1983:477-85.
17
Waltregny A ,Dargent J . Preliminary study of parenteral lorazepam in status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Belg 1975;75:219-229
Medline18
Amand G ,Evrard P . Le lorazepam injectable dans les états de mal épileptiques. Rev Electroencephalogr Neurophysiol Clin 1976;6:532-533
CrossRef | Medline19
DeOliverira RSP . Treatment of convulsive seizures with a new benzodiazepine, lorazepam. Rev Bras Clin Ter 1978;7:295-29820
Walker JE ,Homan RW ,Vasko MR ,Crawford IL ,Bell RD ,Tasker WG . Lorazepam in status epilepticus. Ann Neurol 1979;6:207-213
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline21
Griffith PA ,Karp HR . Lorazepam in therapy for status epilepticus. Ann Neurol 1980;7:493-493
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline22
Sorel L ,Mechler L ,Harmant J . Comparative trial of intravenous lorazepam and clonazepam in status epilepticus. Clin Ther 1981;4:326-336
Web of Science | Medline23
Leppik IE ,Derivan AT ,Homan RW ,Walker J ,Ramsay RE ,Patrick B . Double-blind study of lorazepam and diazepam in status epilepticus. JAMA 1983;249:1452-1454
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline24
Levy RJ ,Krall RL . Treatment of status epilepticus with lorazepam. Arch Neurol 1984;41:605-611
Web of Science | Medline25
Lacey DJ ,Singer WD ,Horwitz SJ ,Gilmore H . Lorazepam therapyof status epilepticus in children and adolescents. J Pediatr 1986;108:771-774
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline26
Crawford TO ,Mitchell WG ,Snodgrass SR . Lorazepam in childhood status epilepticus and serial seizures: effectiveness and tachyphylaxis. Neurology 1987;37:190-195
Web of Science | Medline27
Gabor AJ . Lorazepam versus phenobarbital: candidates for drug of choice for treatment of status epilepticus. J Epilepsy 1990;3:3-6
CrossRef28
Working Group on Status Epilepticus
CrossRef | Web of Science29
Treiman DM . Generalized convulsive status epilepticus in the adult. Epilepsia 1993;34:Suppl 1:S2-S11
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline30
Treiman DM ,Walton NY ,Kendrick C . A progressive sequence of electroencephalographic changes during generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 1990;5:49-60
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline31
Everitt BS. The analysis of contingency tables. London: Chapman & Hall, 1977.
32
SAS/STAT user's guide, version 6. 4th ed. Cary, N.C.: SAS Institute, 1989.
33
Ramsay RE ,Hammond EJ ,Perchalski RJ ,Wilder BJ . Brain uptakeof phenytoin, phenobarbital, and diazepam. Arch Neurol 1979;36:535-539
Web of Science | Medline
- Citing Articles (281)
Citing Articles
1
Brandon Foreman, Lawrence J. Hirsch. (2012) Epilepsy Emergencies: Diagnosis and Management. Neurologic Clinics 30:1, 11-41
CrossRef2
Reza Azizi Malamiri, Mahdieh Ghaempanah, Nahid Khosroshahi, Ali Nikkhah, Behrouz Bavarian, Mahmoud Reza Ashrafi. (2012) Efficacy and safety of intravenous sodium valproate versus phenobarbital in controlling convulsive status epilepticus and acute prolonged convulsive seizures in children: A randomised trial. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology
CrossRef3
Hansel M. Greiner, Jan-Mendelt Tillema, Barbara E. Hallinan, Katherine Holland, Ki-Hyeong Lee, Kerry R. Crone. (2012) Corpus callosotomy for treatment of pediatric refractory status epilepticus. Seizure
CrossRef4
B. Feddersen, E. Trinka. (2012) Status epilepticus. Der Nervenarzt
CrossRef5
Eric S. Rosenthal. (2012) The Utility of EEG, SSEP, and Other Neurophysiologic Tools to Guide Neurocritical Care. Neurotherapeutics
CrossRef6
L. Mnatsakanyan, J.M. Chung, E.I. Tsimerinov, D.S. Eliashiv. (2012) Intravenous Lacosamide in refractory nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Seizure
CrossRef7
B.T. Hardy, E. E. Patterson, J.M. Cloyd, R.M. Hardy, I.E. Leppik. (2012) Double-Masked, Placebo-Controlled Study of Intravenous Levetiracetam for the Treatment of Status Epilepticus and Acute Repetitive Seizures in Dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicinen/a-n/a
CrossRef8
Sunil Cherry, Lilith Judd, Juan Carlos Muniz, Hoda Elzawahry, Suzette LaRoche. (2011) Safety and Efficacy of Lacosamide in the Intensive Care Unit. Neurocritical Care
CrossRef9
Tobias Loddenkemper, Howard P. Goodkin. (2011) Treatment of Pediatric Status Epilepticus. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 13:6, 560-573
CrossRef10
Hussam Seif-Eddeine, David M Treiman. (2011) Problems and controversies in status epilepticus: a review and recommendations. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 11:12, 1747-1758
CrossRef11
Marie Atkinson, Benjamin Atkinson, Gregory Norris, Aashit Shah. (2011) Refractory status epilepticus secondary to CNS vasculitis, a role for epilepsy surgery. Journal of the Neurological Sciences
CrossRef12
J. Chris Sackellares, Deng-Shan Shiau, Jonathon J. Halford, Suzette M. LaRoche, Kevin M. Kelly. (2011) Quantitative EEG analysis for automated detection of nonconvulsive seizures in intensive care units. Epilepsy & Behavior 22, S69-S73
CrossRef13
F. Brigo, M. Storti, A. Del Felice, A. Fiaschi, L. G. Bongiovanni. (2011) IV Valproate in generalized convulsive status epilepticus: a systematic review. European Journal of Neurologyno-no
CrossRef14
Nicola E. Hamil, Hannah R. Cock, Matthew C. Walker. (2011) Acute down-regulation of adenosine A1 receptor activity in status epilepticus. Epilepsiano-no
CrossRef15
Eugen Trinka. (2011) What is the evidence to use new intravenous AEDs in status epilepticus?. Epilepsia 52, 35-38
CrossRef16
Julia Höfler, Iris Unterberger, Judith Dobesberger, Giorgi Kuchukhidze, Gerald Walser, Eugen Trinka. (2011) Intravenous lacosamide in status epilepticus and seizure clusters. Epilepsia 52:10, e148-e152
CrossRef17
Claude G. Wasterlain, Roger Baldwin, David E. Naylor, Kerry W. Thompson, Lucie Suchomelova, Jerome Niquet. (2011) Rational polytherapy in the treatment of acute seizures and status epilepticus. Epilepsia 52, 70-71
CrossRef18
Ilo E. Leppik, Edward N. Patterson, Lisa D. Coles, Elise M. Craft, James C. Cloyd. (2011) Canine status epilepticus: A translational platform for human therapeutic trials. Epilepsia 52, 31-34
CrossRef19
Andrea O Rossetti, Daniel H Lowenstein. (2011) Management of refractory status epilepticus in adults: still more questions than answers. The Lancet Neurology 10:10, 922-930
CrossRef20
Stefano Pro, Edoardo Vicenzini, Monica Rocco, Gustavo Spadetta, Franco Randi, Patrizia Pulitano, Oriano Mecarelli. (2011) An observational electro-clinical study of status epilepticus: From management to outcome. Seizure
CrossRef21
Andrea S. Synowiec, Kristin A. Yandora, Vamsi Yenugadhati, James P. Valeriano, Carol J. Schramke, Kevin M. Kelly. (2011) The efficacy of topiramate in adult refractory status epilepticus: Experience of a Tertiary Care Center. Epilepsy Research
CrossRef22
U. K. Misra, J. Kalita, P. K. Maurya. (2011) Levetiracetam versus lorazepam in status epilepticus: a randomized, open labeled pilot study. Journal of Neurology
CrossRef23
Betul Ozdilek, Kadriye Agan, Ipek Midi, Canan Aykut Bingol, Onder Us. (2011) Electroencephalographic response to intravenous diazepam during status epilepticus. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research 17:3, 71-74
CrossRef24
P. Perez-Mendes, M.M. Blanco, M.E. Calcagnotto, S.M. Cinini, J. Bachiega, D. Papoti, L. Covolan, A. Tannus, L.E. Mello. (2011) Modeling epileptogenesis and temporal lobe epilepsy in a non-human primate. Epilepsy Research 96:1-2, 45-57
CrossRef25
Jacqueline A. French. (2011) Benzo Versus Benzo: And the Winner Is…. Epilepsy Currents 11:5, 143-144
CrossRef26
Diana Rudin, Leticia Grize, Christian Schindler, Stephan Marsch, Stephan Rüegg, Raoul Sutter. (2011) High prevalence of nonconvulsive and subtle status epilepticus in an ICU of a tertiary care center: A three-year observational cohort study. Epilepsy Research 96:1-2, 140-150
CrossRef27
Susan T. Herman, Masanori Takeoka, John R. Hughes, Frank W. Drislane. (2011) Electroencephalography in clinical epilepsy research. Epilepsy & Behavior 22:1, 126-133
CrossRef28
M. Wolff, S. Rona, I. Krägeloh-Mann. (2011) Therapie des Status epilepticus. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde 159:8, 732-738
CrossRef29
Hemanshu Prabhakar, Ashish Bindra, Gyaninder Pal Singh, Mani Kalaivani, Hemanshu Prabhakar. 2011. Propofol versus thiopental sodium for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. .
CrossRef30
Vincent Alvarez, Jean-Marie Januel, Bernard Burnand, Andrea O. Rossetti. (2011) Second-line status epilepticus treatment: Comparison of phenytoin, valproate, and levetiracetam. Epilepsia 52:7, 1292-1296
CrossRef31
Johannes Michael Albers, Gabriel Möddel, Ralf Dittrich, Corinna Steidl, Sonja Suntrup, Erich Bernd Ringelstein, Rainer Dziewas. (2011) Intravenous lacosamide—An effective add-on treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Seizure 20:5, 428-430
CrossRef32
Haley Goodwin, Holly E. Hinson, Kenneth M. Shermock, Navaz Karanjia, John J. Lewin. (2011) The Use of Lacosamide in Refractory Status Epilepticus. Neurocritical Care 14:3, 348-353
CrossRef33
Mike R Schoenberg, Alfred T Frontera, Ali Bozorg, Pedro Hernandez-Frau, Fernando Vale, Selim R Benbadis. (2011) An update on epilepsy. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 11:5, 639-645
CrossRef34
W. B. Chen, R. Gao, Y. Y. Su, J. W. Zhao, Y. Z. Zhang, L. Wang, Y. Ren, C. Q. Fan. (2011) Valproate versus diazepam for generalized convulsive status epilepticus: a pilot study. European Journal of Neurologyno-no
CrossRef35
John M. Schreiber, William D. Gaillard. (2011) Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Childhood. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 11:2, 195-204
CrossRef36
D. Rörtgen, A. Schaumberg, M. Skorning, S. Bergrath, S.K. Beckers, M. Coburn, J.C. Brokmann, H. Fischermann, M. Nieveler, R. Rossaint. (2011) Vorgehaltene Medikamente auf notarztbesetzten Rettungsmitteln in Deutschland. Der Anaesthesist 60:4, 312-324
CrossRef37
Lifei Yu, Yuanfeng Zhou, Wen Chen, Yi Wang. (2011) Mild hypothermia pretreatment protects against pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus and neuronalapoptosis in immature rats. Neuropathology 31:2, 144-151
CrossRef38
Adnan I. Qureshi. (2011) Intracerebral Hemorrhage Specific Intensity of Care Quality Metrics. Neurocritical Care 14:2, 291-317
CrossRef39
Martin Holtkamp. (2011) Treatment strategies for refractory status epilepticus. Current Opinion in Critical Care 17:2, 94-100
CrossRef40
Ravindra Arya, Sheffali Gulati, Madhulika Kabra, Jitendra K. Sahu, Veena Kalra. (2011) Intranasal versus intravenous lorazepam for control of acute seizures in children: A randomized open-label study. Epilepsia 52:4, 788-793
CrossRef41
Eylem Ulas Saz, Bulent Karapinar, Mustafa Ozcetin, Muzaffer Polat, Ayse Tosun, Gul Serdaroglu, Sarenur Gokben, Hasan Tekgul. (2011) Convulsive status epilepticus in children: Etiology, treatment protocol and outcome. Seizure 20:2, 115-118
CrossRef42
Josef G. Thundiyil, Freda Rowley, Linda Papa, Kent R. Olson, Thomas E. Kearney. (2011) Risk Factors for Complications of Drug-Induced Seizures. Journal of Medical Toxicology 7:1, 16-23
CrossRef43
J. Salas-Puig, M. Toledo Argany, A. Jimeno. (2011) Protocolo diagnóstico y terapéutico del status epilepticus. Medicine - Programa de Formación Médica Continuada Acreditado 10:74, 5046-5051
CrossRef44
Claude G. Wasterlain, Thomas Stöhr, Alain Matagne. (2011) The acute and chronic effects of the novel anticonvulsant lacosamide in an experimental model of status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 94:1-2, 10-17
CrossRef45
Anannit Visudtibhan, Kasama Bhudhisawadi, Jarin Vaewpanich, Suvatna Chulavatnatol, Sming Kaojareon. (2011) Pharmacokinetics and clinical application of intravenous valproate in Thai epileptic children. Brain and Development 33:3, 189-194
CrossRef46
C. Kellinghaus, S. Berning, I. Immisch, J. Larch, F. Rosenow, A. O. Rossetti, C. Tilz, E. Trinka. (2011) Intravenous lacosamide for treatment of status epilepticus. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 123:2, 137-141
CrossRef47
Dinesh Raj, Sheffali Gulati, Rakesh Lodha. (2011) Status Epilepticus. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics 78:2, 219-226
CrossRef48
Laxmikant S. Deshpande, Robert J. DeLorenzo. (2011) Acetaminophen inhibits status epilepticus in cultured hippocampal neurons. NeuroReport 22:1, 15-18
CrossRef49
A. Neligan, S.D. Shorvon. (2011) Prognostic factors, morbidity and mortality in tonic–clonic status epilepticus: A review. Epilepsy Research 93:1, 1-10
CrossRef50
Maria Aiguabella, Mercè Falip, Vicente Villanueva, Pilar de la Peña, Albert Molins, Irene Garcia-Morales, Rosa Ana Saiz, Julio Pardo, Diego Tortosa, Gemma Sansa, Júlia Miró. (2011) Efficacy of intravenous levetiracetam as an add-on treatment in status epilepticus: A multicentric observational study. Seizure 20:1, 60-64
CrossRef51
Raoul Sutter, Sarah Tschudin-Sutter, Leticia Grize, Andreas F Widmer, Stephan Marsch, Stephan Rüegg. (2011) Acute phase proteins and white blood cell levels for prediction of infectious complications in status epilepticus. Critical Care 15:6, R274
CrossRef52
Cecil D. Hahn, Sam D. Shemie, Elizabeth J. Donner. 2011. Status Epilepticus. , 837-848.
CrossRef53
Stéphane Legriel, Elie Azoulay, Matthieu Resche-Rigon, Virginie Lemiale, Bruno Mourvillier, Achille Kouatchet, Gilles Troché, Manuel Wolf, Richard Galliot, Géraldine Dessertaine, Danièle Combaux, Frederic Jacobs, Pascal Beuret, Bruno Megarbane, Pierre Carli, Yves Lambert, Fabrice Bruneel, Jean-Pierre Bedos. (2010) Functional outcome after convulsive status epilepticus. Critical Care Medicine 38:12, 2295-2303
CrossRef54
2010. Further Reading. , 378-407.
CrossRef55
Alejandro A. Rabinstein. (2010) Management of Status Epilepticus in Adults. Neurologic Clinics 28:4, 853-862
CrossRef56
H. Meierkord, P. Boon, B. Engelsen, K. Göcke, S. Shorvon, P. Tinuper, M. Holtkamp. 2010. Status Epilepticus. , 421-428.
CrossRef57
G. Bråthen, E. Ben - Menachem, E. Brodtkorb, R. Galvin, J. C. Garcia - Monco, P. Halasz, M. Hillbom, M. A. Leone, A. B. Young. 2010. Alcohol-Related Seizures. , 429-436.
CrossRef58
2010. Generalized Periodic Epileptiform Discharges. , 46-47.
CrossRef59
Alexandre Aranda, Guillaume Foucart, Jean Louis Ducassé, Sabrina Grolleau, Aileen McGonigal, Luc Valton. (2010) Generalized convulsive status epilepticus management in adults: A cohort study with evaluation of professional practice. Epilepsia 51:10, 2159-2167
CrossRef60
Cigdem Inan Akman. (2010) Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus and Continuous Spike and Slow Wave of Sleep in Children. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology 17:3, 155-162
CrossRef61
Karthik Rajasekaran, Santina A. Zanelli, Howard P. Goodkin. (2010) Lessons From the Laboratory: The Pathophysiology, and Consequences of Status Epilepticus. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology 17:3, 136-143
CrossRef62
Lucyna Zawadzki, Carl E. Stafstrom. (2010) Status Epilepticus Treatment and Outcome in Children: What Might the Future Hold?. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology 17:3, 201-205
CrossRef63
James Owens. (2010) Medical Management of Refractory Status Epilepticus. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology 17:3, 176-181
CrossRef64
Kenneth R. Kaufman, Nicole Zuber, Maria A. Rueda-Lara, Anthony Tobia. (2010) MELAS with recurrent complex partial seizures, nonconvulsive status epilepticus, psychosis, and behavioral disturbances: Case analysis with literature review. Epilepsy & Behavior 18:4, 494-497
CrossRef65
David E. Naylor. (2010) Glutamate and GABA in the balance: Convergent pathways sustain seizures during status epilepticus. Epilepsia 51, 106-109
CrossRef66
Kris Gommeren, Stéphanie Claeys, Hilde De Rooster, Annick Hamaide, Sylvie Daminet. (2010) Outcome from status epilepticus after portosystemic shunt attenuation in 3 dogs treated with propofol and phenobarbital. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care 20:3, 346-351
CrossRef67
Olivier Veran, Philippe Kahane, Pierre Thomas, Sophie Hamelin, Cecile Sabourdy, Laurent Vercueil. (2010) De novo epileptic confusion in the elderly: A 1-year prospective study. Epilepsia 51:6, 1030-1035
CrossRef68
Emily Gilmore, H. Alex Choi, Lawrence J. Hirsch, Jan Claassen. (2010) Seizures and CNS Hemorrhage. The Neurologist 16:3, 165-175
CrossRef69
Katharine Gallop. (2010) Review article: Phenytoin use and efficacy in the ED. Emergency Medicine Australasia 22:2, 108-118
CrossRef70
T.G. Sreenath, Piyush Gupta, K.K. Sharma, Sriram Krishnamurthy. (2010) Lorazepam versus diazepam–phenytoin combination in the treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children: A randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 14:2, 162-168
CrossRef71
H. Meierkord, P. Boon, B. Engelsen, K. Göcke, S. Shorvon, P. Tinuper, M. Holtkamp. (2010) EFNS guideline on the management of status epilepticus in adults. European Journal of Neurology 17:3, 348-355
CrossRef72
Andrea O. Rossetti. (2010) Treatment Options in the Management of Status Epilepticus. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 12:2, 100-112
CrossRef73
S. Sinha, D.K. Prashantha, K. Thennarasu, G.S. Umamaheshwara Rao, P. Satishchandra. (2010) Refractory status epilepticus: A developing country perspective. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 290:1-2, 60-65
CrossRef74
Matthew T Hoerth, Joseph F Drazkowski. (2010) Seizure emergencies in older adults. Aging Health 6:1, 97-110
CrossRef75
Gerhard Bauer, Eugen Trinka. (2010) Nonconvulsive status epilepticus and coma. Epilepsia 51:2, 177-190
CrossRef76
J. Kalita, P. P. Nair, Usha Kant Misra. (2010) A clinical, radiological and outcome study of status epilepticus from India. Journal of Neurology 257:2, 224-229
CrossRef77
Jan Novy, Giancarlo Logroscino, Andrea O. Rossetti. (2010) Refractory status epilepticus: A prospective observational study. Epilepsia 51:2, 251-256
CrossRef78
Edward K. Avila, Jerome Graber. (2010) Seizures and Epilepsy in Cancer Patients. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 10:1, 60-67
CrossRef79
Brita Fritsch, Jeffrey J. Stott, Joy Joelle Donofrio, Michael A. Rogawski. (2010) Treatment of early and late kainic acid-induced status epilepticus with the noncompetitive AMPA receptor antagonist GYKI 52466. Epilepsia 51:1, 108-117
CrossRef80
Felicia Qashu, Taiza H. Figueiredo, Vassiliki Aroniadou-Anderjaska, James P. Apland, Maria F. M. Braga. (2010) Diazepam administration after prolonged status epilepticus reduces neurodegeneration in the amygdala but not in the hippocampus during epileptogenesis. Amino Acids 38:1, 189-197
CrossRef81
Xi-Chun M Lu, Yuanzheng Si, Anthony J Williams, Jed A Hartings, Divina Gryder, Frank C Tortella. (2009) NNZ-2566, a glypromate analog, attenuates brain ischemia-induced non-convulsive seizures in rats. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 29:12, 1924-1932
CrossRef82
Vivek N. Iyer, Rebecca Hoel, Alejandro A. Rabinstein. (2009) Propofol infusion syndrome in patients with refractory status epilepticus: An 11-year clinical experience*. Critical Care Medicine 37:12, 3024-3030
CrossRef83
Michel Baulac, Vincent Navarro. (2009) Minimum requirements for approval of a drug in status epilepticus. Epilepsia 50, 77-78
CrossRef84
Eugen Trinka. (2009) What is the relative value of the standard anticonvulsants: Phenytoin and fosphenytoin, phenobarbital, valproate, and levetiracetam?. Epilepsia 50, 40-43
CrossRef85
Batool F Kirmani. (2009) Acute seizure management in children. Pediatric Health 3:6, 543-549
CrossRef86
Ilo E. Leppik, Edward Patterson, Brian Hardy, James C. Cloyd. (2009) Canine status epilepticus: Proof of principle studies. Epilepsia 50, 14-15
CrossRef87
Panayiotis N. Varelas, Marek A. Mirski. (2009) Status epilepticus. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 9:6, 469-476
CrossRef88
Gonzalo Gámez-Leyva, José Luis Aristín, Emilio Fernández, Julio Pascual. (2009) Experience with Intravenous Levetiracetam in Status Epilepticus. CNS Drugs 23:11, 983-987
CrossRef89
Ossama Al-Mefty, David Wrubel, Naim Haddad. (2009) Postoperative nonconvulsive encephalopathic status: identification of a syndrome responsible for delayed progressive deterioration of neurological status after skull base surgery. Journal of Neurosurgery 111:5, 1062-1068
CrossRef90
Sandya Tirupathi, Joseph B. McMenamin, David W. Webb. (2009) Analysis of factors influencing admission to intensive care following convulsive status epilepticus in children. Seizure 18:9, 630-633
CrossRef91
Amish M Shah, Anita Vashi, Andy Jagoda. (2009) Review article: Convulsive and non-convulsive status epilepticus: An emergency medicine perspective. Emergency Medicine Australasia 21:5, 352-366
CrossRef92
Abdul Wahab, Uwe Heinemann, Klaus Albus. (2009) Effects of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists and a GABA uptake inhibitor on pharmacoresistant seizure like events in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. Epilepsy Research 86:2-3, 113-123
CrossRef93
Sheron Beltran, Teresa Jacobs. (2009) An Excitatory Path to Unconsciousness: Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus. International Anesthesiology Clinics 46:3, 159-170
CrossRef94
Gabriel U. Martz, Christina Hucek, Mark Quigg. (2009) Sixty Day Continuous Use of Subdermal Wire Electrodes for EEG Monitoring During Treatment of Status Epilepticus. Neurocritical Care 11:2, 223-227
CrossRef95
Sascha Berning, Frank Boesebeck, Andreas Baalen, Christoph Kellinghaus. (2009) Intravenous levetiracetam as treatment for status epilepticus. Journal of Neurology 256:10, 1634-1642
CrossRef96
Daniel Epstein, Eric Diu, Tamara Abeysekera, Daniel Kam, Yin Chan. (2009) Review of non-convulsive status epilepticus and an illustrative case history manifesting as delirium. Australasian Journal on Ageing 28:3, 110-115
CrossRef97
Howard P. Goodkin, Jaideep Kapur. (2009) The impact of diazepam’s discovery on the treatment and understanding of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 50:9, 2011-2018
CrossRef98
Daniel Friedman, Jan Claassen, Lawrence J. Hirsch. (2009) Continuous Electroencephalogram Monitoring in the Intensive Care Unit. Anesthesia & Analgesia 109:2, 506-523
CrossRef99
Barbara S. Koppel. (2009) Treatment of acute and remote symptomatic seizures. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 11:4, 231-241
CrossRef100
Frank W. Drislane, Andrew S. Blum, Maria R. Lopez, Shiva Gautam, Donald L. Schomer. (2009) Duration of refractory status epilepticus and outcome: Loss of prognostic utility after several hours. Epilepsia 50:6, 1566-1571
CrossRef101
Susanne Knake, Hajo M. Hamer, Felix Rosenow. (2009) Status epilepticus: A critical review. Epilepsy & Behavior 15:1, 10-14
CrossRef102
Pedro Kurtz, Khalid A Hanafy, Jan Claassen. (2009) Continuous EEG monitoring: is it ready for prime time?. Current Opinion in Critical Care 15:2, 99-109
CrossRef103
Norman C. Wang, Levi B. Good, Steven T. Marsh, David M. Treiman. (2009) EEG stages predict treatment response in experimental status epilepticus. Epilepsia 50:4, 949-952
CrossRef104
Lei Chen, Peimin Feng, Jinghua Wang, Ling Liu, Dong Zhou. (2009) Intravenous sodium valproate in mainland China for the treatment of diazepam refractory convulsive status epilepticus. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 16:4, 524-526
CrossRef105
Kadriye Agan, Nazire Afsar, Ipek Midi, Onder Us, Sevinc Aktan, Canan Aykut-Bingol. (2009) Predictors of refractoriness in a Turkish status epilepticus data bank. Epilepsy & Behavior 14:4, 651-654
CrossRef106
Joris W.F. Uges, Marc D. van Huizen, Jeroen Engelsman, Erik B. Wilms, Daniel J. Touw, Els Peeters, Charles J. Vecht. (2009) Safety and pharmacokinetics of intravenous levetiracetam infusion as add-on in status epilepticus. Epilepsia 50:3, 415-421
CrossRef107
Rani K. Singh, William D. Gaillard. (2009) Status epilepticus in children. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 9:2, 137-144
CrossRef108
(2009) Where in the World Are We? Generalizing the Results of Status Epilepticus Trials. Epilepsy Currents 9:2, 38-40
CrossRef109
Dan Millikan, Brian Rice, Robert Silbergleit. (2009) Emergency Treatment of Status Epilepticus: Current Thinking. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 27:1, 101-113
CrossRef110
Lalitha Sivaswamy, Gyula Acsadi, Huyian Jiang. (2009) Treatment of seizures in childhood. Therapy 6:1, 41-50
CrossRef111
Thomas P. Bleck. (2009) Historical Aspects of Critical Care and the Nervous System. Critical Care Clinics 25:1, 153-164
CrossRef112
Mario A. Cristancho, Yesne Alici, John G. Augoustides, John P. O’Reardon. (2008) Uncommon but serious complications associated with electroconvulsive therapy: Recognition and management for the clinician. Current Psychiatry Reports 10:6, 474-480
CrossRef113
James W. Wheless, David M. Treiman. (2008) The role of the newer antiepileptic drugs in the treatment of generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsia 49, 74-78
CrossRef114
Laura C Miller, Frank W Drislane. (2008) Treatment of status epilepticus. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 8:12, 1817-1827
CrossRef115
Claude G. Wasterlain, James W. Y. Chen. (2008) Mechanistic and pharmacologic aspects of status epilepticus and its treatment with new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 49, 63-73
CrossRef116
R. Gilad, N. Izkovitz, R. Dabby, A. Rapoport, M. Sadeh, B. Weller, Y. Lampl. (2008) Treatment of status epilepticus and acute repetitive seizures with i.v. valproic acid vs phenytoin. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 118:5, 296-300
CrossRef117
(2008) Selective Changes in Hippocampal GABA A Receptors during Status Epilepticus. Epilepsy Currents 8:6, 170-172
CrossRef118
Jens P. Bankstahl, Wolfgang Löscher. (2008) Resistance to antiepileptic drugs and expression of P-glycoprotein in two rat models of status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 82:1, 70-85
CrossRef119
Jesse J. Corry, Rajat Dhar, Theresa Murphy, Michael N. Diringer. (2008) Hypothermia for Refractory Status Epilepticus. Neurocritical Care 9:2, 189-197
CrossRef120
Pedro Kurtz, Jan Claassen. (2008) Continuous EEG monitoring in the ICU. Future Neurology 3:5, 575-588
CrossRef121
(2008) Levitating Levetiracetam's Status for Status Epilepticus. Epilepsy Currents 8:5, 125-126
CrossRef122
David M Treiman. (2008) Importance of early recognition and treatment of generalised convulsive status epilepticus. The Lancet Neurology 7:8, 667-668
CrossRef123
Frank W. Drislane, Maria R. Lopez, Andrew S. Blum, Donald L. Schomer. (2008) Detection and Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus in the Intensive Care Unit. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 25:4, 181-186
CrossRef124
J. Riss, J. Cloyd, J. Gates, S. Collins. (2008) Benzodiazepines in epilepsy: pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 118:2, 69-86
CrossRef125
Peter Kinirons, Colin P. Doherty. (2008) Status epilepticus: a modern approach to management. European Journal of Emergency Medicine 15:4, 187-195
CrossRef126
Stefan Lorenzl, Simon Mayer, Soheyl Noachtar, Gian Domenico Borasio. (2008) Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus in Terminally Ill Patients—A Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenge. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 36:2, 200-205
CrossRef127
Joanne Droney, Emma Hall. (2008) Status Epilepticus in a Hospice Inpatient Setting. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 36:1, 97-105
CrossRef128
(2008) Transatlantic similarities and differences in the management of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 49:7, 1285-1287
CrossRef129
D Caselli, O Ziino, A Bartoli, G Santangelo, F Vanadia, M Aricò. (2008) Continuous intravenous infusion of lorazepam as seizure prophylaxis in children treated with high-dose busulfan. Bone Marrow Transplantation 42:2, 135-136
CrossRef130
Usha Kant Misra, Jayantee Kalita, Pradeep P. Nair. (2008) Status Epilepticus in Central Nervous System Infections: An Experience From a Developing Country. The American Journal of Medicine 121:7, 618-623
CrossRef131
M.C. McCord, A. Lorenzana, C.S. Bloom, Z.O. Chancer, P.E. Schauwecker. (2008) Effect of age on kainate-induced seizure severity and cell death. Neuroscience 154:3, 1143-1153
CrossRef132
Nicholas S. Abend, Dennis J. Dlugos. (2008) Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus: Literature Review and a Proposed Protocol. Pediatric Neurology 38:6, 377-390
CrossRef133
Karine J. Abou Khaled, Lawrence J. Hirsch. (2008) Updates in the Management of Seizures and Status Epilepticus in Critically Ill Patients. Neurologic Clinics 26:2, 385-408
CrossRef134
Rama Maganti, Paula Gerber, Cornelia Drees, Steve Chung. (2008) Nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy & Behavior 12:4, 572-586
CrossRef135
Andres M. Kanner. (2008) Intravenous Valproate for Status Epilepticus … An Effective, Yet Still Merely Empirical Alternative!. Epilepsy Currents 8:3, 66-67
CrossRef136
Eliahu S. Feen, Eric M. Bershad, Jose I. Suarez. (2008) Status Epilepticus. Southern Medical Journal 101:4, 400-406
CrossRef137
Amanuel Amare, Guta Zenebe, Julie Hammack, Gail Davey. (2008) Status epilepticus: Clinical presentation, cause, outcome, and predictors of death in 119 Ethiopian patients. Epilepsia 49:4, 600-607
CrossRef138
Florise A. C. P. Lambrechtsen, Jeffrey R. Buchhalter. (2008) Aborted and refractory status epilepticus in children: A comparative analysis. Epilepsia 49:4, 615-625
CrossRef139
Laxmikant S. Deshpande, Jeffrey K. Lou, Ali Mian, Robert E. Blair, Sompong Sombati, Elisa Attkisson, Robert J. DeLorenzo. (2008) Time course and mechanism of hippocampal neuronal death in an in vitro model of status epilepticus: Role of NMDA receptor activation and NMDA dependent calcium entry. European Journal of Pharmacology 583:1, 73-83
CrossRef140
Stéphane Legriel, Bruno Mourvillier, Nicolas Bele, Jose Amaro, Pierre Fouet, Philippe Manet, François Hilpert. (2008) Outcomes in 140 critically ill patients with status epilepticus. Intensive Care Medicine 34:3, 476-480
CrossRef141
Brandon S. Martin, Jaideep Kapur. (2008) A combination of ketamine and diazepam synergistically controls refractory status epilepticus induced by cholinergic stimulation. Epilepsia 49:2, 248-255
CrossRef142
Simon N. Muchohi, Kenneth Obiero, Charles R. J. C. Newton, Bernhards R. Ogutu, Geoffrey Edwards, Gilbert O. Kokwaro. (2008) Pharmacokinetics and clinical efficacy of lorazepam in children with severe malaria and convulsions. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 65:1, 12-21
CrossRef143
Marek A. Mirski, Panayiotis N. Varelas. (2008) Seizures and Status Epilepticus in the Critically Ill. Critical Care Clinics 24:1, 115-147
CrossRef144
Feng Ru Tang, Peng Min Chen, Yong Cheng Tang, Mui Chiung Tsai, Wei Ling Lee. (2007) Two-methyl-6-phenylethynyl-pyridine (MPEP), a metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 antagonist, with low doses of MK801 and diazepam: A novel approach for controlling status epilepticus. Neuropharmacology 53:7, 821-831
CrossRef145
Thomas P. Bleck. (2007) Intensive care unit management of patients with status epilepticus. Epilepsia 48:s8, 59-60
CrossRef146
Brian G. R. Neville, Richard F. Chin, Rod C. Scott. (2007) Clinical trial design in status epilepticus: problems and solutions. Epilepsia 48:s8, 56-58
CrossRef147
Rishi V.A. Sheorajpanday, Peter P. De Deyn. (2007) Epileptic fits and epilepsy in the elderly: General reflections, specific issues and therapeutic implications. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 109:9, 727-743
CrossRef148
Pierre Thomas. (2007) How urgent is the treatment of nonconvulsive status epilepticus?. Epilepsia 48:s8, 44-45
CrossRef149
Simon D. Shorvon, Eugen Trinka, Matthew C. Walker. (2007) The proceedings of the First London Colloquium on Status Epilepticus—University College London, April 12–15, 2007. Epilepsia 48:s8, 1-3
CrossRef150
Ilkka Parviainen, Reetta Kälviäinen, Esko Ruokonen. (2007) Propofol and barbiturates for the anesthesia of refractory convulsive status epilepticus: pros and cons. Neurological Research 29:7, 667-671
CrossRef151
William Heegaard, Michelle Biros. (2007) Traumatic Brain Injury. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 25:3, 655-678
CrossRef152
J. Jirsch, L.J. Hirsch. (2007) Nonconvulsive seizures: Developing a rational approach to the diagnosis and management in the critically ill population. Clinical Neurophysiology 118:8, 1660-1670
CrossRef153
B. Pohlmann-Eden, U. Stephani, I. Krägeloh-Mann, B. Schmitt, U. Brandl, M. Holtkamp. (2007) Management des refraktären Status epilepticus. Der Nervenarzt 78:8, 871-882
CrossRef154
Yu-tze Ng, Ruth E. Bristol, Dewi V. Schrader, Kris A. Smith. (2007) The role of neurosurgery in status epilepticus. Neurocritical Care 7:1, 86-91
CrossRef155
Jagarlapudi M. K. Murthy, Sita S. Jayalaxmi, Meena A. Kanikannan. (2007) Convulsive Status Epilepticus: Clinical Profile in a Developing Country. Epilepsia 0:0, 070725193452001-???
CrossRef156
Lawrence J. Hirsch. (2007) The Status of Intravenous Valproate for Status. Epilepsy Currents 7:4, 96-98
CrossRef157
Kameshwar Prasad, Pudukode R. Krishnan, Khaldoon Al-Roomi, Reginald Sequeira. (2007) Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 63:6, 640-647
CrossRef158
Jaishree T. Narayanan, Jagarlapudi M. K. Murthy. (2007) Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus in a Neurological Intensive Care Unit: Profile in a Developing Country. Epilepsia 48:5, 900-906
CrossRef159
F. Aksu, B. Püst. (2007) Klinik, Behandlung und Verlauf von Fieberkrämpfen. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde 155:5, 419-424
CrossRef160
Xu-Guang Gao, Yang Liu, Xian-Zeng Liu. (2007) Treatment of late lithium-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus with diazepam. Epilepsy Research 74:2-3, 126-130
CrossRef161
Andrew S. Little, John F. Kerrigan, Cameron G. McDougall, Joseph M. Zabramski, Felipe C. Albuquerque, Peter Nakaji, Robert F. Spetzler. (2007) Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in patients suffering spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage. Journal of Neurosurgery 106:5, 805-811
CrossRef162
T. Engelhorn, J. Weise, T. Hammen, I. Bluemcke, A. Hufnagel, A. Doerfler. (2007) Early diffusion-weighted MRI predicts regional neuronal damage in generalized status epilepticus in rats treated with diazepam. Neuroscience Letters 417:3, 275-280
CrossRef163
J. Tejeiro Martínez. (2007) Status epilepticus. Medicine - Programa de Formación Médica Continuada Acreditado 9:75, 4830-4837
CrossRef164
J. W. Y. Chen, D. E. Naylor, C. G. Wasterlain. (2007) Advances in the pathophysiology of status epilepticus. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 115:s186, 7-15
CrossRef165
Laxmikant S. Deshpande, Robert E. Blair, Nisha Nagarkatti, Sompong Sombati, Billy R. Martin, Robert J. DeLorenzo. (2007) Development of pharmacoresistance to benzodiazepines but not cannabinoids in the hippocampal neuronal culture model of status epilepticus. Experimental Neurology 204:2, 705-713
CrossRef166
Asla Pitkänen, Claus Mathiesen, Lars Christian B. Rønn, Arne Møller, Jari Nissinen. (2007) Effect of novel AMPA antagonist, NS1209, on status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 74:1, 45-54
CrossRef167
Martin Holtkamp. (2007) The anaesthetic and intensive care of status epilepticus. Current Opinion in Neurology 20:2, 188-193
CrossRef168
J. Scott Cline, Karen Roos. (2007) Treatment of Status Epilepticus With Electroconvulsive Therapy. The Journal of ECT 23:1, 30-32
CrossRef169
Laxmikant S. Deshpande, Robert E. Blair, Julie M. Ziobro, Sompong Sombati, Billy R. Martin, Robert J. DeLorenzo. (2007) Endocannabinoids block status epilepticus in cultured hippocampal neurons. European Journal of Pharmacology 558:1-3, 52-59
CrossRef170
Maija Holsti, Benjamin L. Sill, Sean D. Firth, Francis M. Filloux, Steven M. Joyce, Ronald A. Furnival. (2007) Prehospital Intranasal Midazolam for the Treatment of Pediatric Seizures. Pediatric Emergency Care 23:3, 148-153
CrossRef171
Dorte Kjær, Erzsébet Horvath-Puhó, Jakob Christensen, Mogens Vestergaard, Andrew E. Czeizel, Henrik Toft Sørensen, Jørn Olsen. (2007) Use of phenytoin, phenobarbital, or diazepam during pregnancy and risk of congenital abnormalities: a case-time-control study. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 16:2, 181-188
CrossRef172
Stefan Beyenburg, Christian E. Elger, Markus Reuber. (2007) Acute Confusion or Altered Mental State: Consider Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus. Gerontology 53:6, 388-396
CrossRef173
Cheol Lee, Yong Son. (2007) Isoflurane Anesthesia Therapy for Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus Continuing after the Control of Convulsive Status Epilepticus - A case report -. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology 53:3, 387
CrossRef174
Jennifer François, Estelle Koning, Arielle Ferrandon, Astrid Nehlig. (2006) The combination of topiramate and diazepam is partially neuroprotective in the hippocampus but not antiepileptogenic in the lithium-pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Research 72:2-3, 147-163
CrossRef175
Fabio Minicucci, Giancarlo Muscas, Emilio Perucca, Giuseppe Capovilla, Federico Vigevano, Paolo Tinuper. (2006) Treatment of Status Epilepticus in Adults: Guidelines of the Italian League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia 47:s5, 9-15
CrossRef176
F. Bösebeck, G. Möddel, K. Anneken, M. Fischera, S. Evers, E. B. Ringelstein, C. Kellinghaus. (2006) Therapierefraktärer Status epilepticus. Der Nervenarzt 77:10, 1159-1175
CrossRef177
Daniel H. Lowenstein. (2006) The Management of Refractory Status Epilepticus: An Update. Epilepsia 47:s1, 35-40
CrossRef178
K ABOUKHALED, L HIRSCH. (2006) Advances in the Management of Seizures and Status Epilepticus in Critically Ill Patients. Critical Care Clinics 22:4, 637-659
CrossRef179
F.C. Schmitt, K. Buchheim, H. Meierkord, M. Holtkamp. (2006) Anticonvulsant properties of hypothermia in experimental status epilepticus. Neurobiology of Disease 23:3, 689-696
CrossRef180
Raili Riikonen. (2006) Childhood convulsive status epilepticus. The Lancet 368:9531, 184-185
CrossRef181
&NA;. (2006) Aggressive and early treatment of refractory generalised convulsive status epilepticus improves response and outcome. Drugs & Therapy Perspectives 22:7, 12-16
CrossRef182
H. Meierkord, P. Boon, B. Engelsen, K. Gocke, S. Shorvon, P. Tinuper, M. Holtkamp. (2006) EFNS guideline on the management of status epilepticus. European Journal of Neurology 13:5, 445-450
CrossRef183
H.J. Sleven, J.E. Gibbs, H.R. Cock. (2006) The antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine does not prevent hippocampal glutathione loss or mitochondrial dysfunction associated with status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 69:2, 165-169
CrossRef184
Nitin C. Patel, Ivan R. Landan, Jeffrey Levin, Jerzy Szaflarski, Andrew N. Wilner. (2006) The use of levetiracetam in refractory status epilepticus. Seizure 15:3, 137-141
CrossRef185
Julie E. Gibbs, Matthew C. Walker, Hannah R. Cock. (2006) Levetiracetam: Antiepileptic Properties and Protective Effects on Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Experimental Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia 47:3, 469-478
CrossRef186
M. Guarino, J. Benito-Leon, J. Decruyenaere, E. Schmutzhard, K. Weissenborn, A. Stracciari. (2006) EFNS guidelines on management of neurological problems in liver transplantation. European Journal of Neurology 13:1, 2-9
CrossRef187
2006. Antiepileptic drugs. , 274-301.
CrossRef188
2006. Lorazepam. , 2163-2166.
CrossRef189
David M. Treiman, M.C. Walker. (2006) Treatment of seizure emergencies: Convulsive and non-convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 68, 77-82
CrossRef190
Kameshwar Prasad, Khaldoon Al-Roomi, Pudukode R Krishnan, Reginald Sequeira, Kameshwar Prasad. 2005. Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus. .
CrossRef191
Naoto Adachi, Kousuke Kanemoto, Reimi Muramatsu, Masaaki Kato, Nozomi Akanuma, Masumi Ito, Jun Kawasaki, Teiichi Onuma. (2005) Intellectual Prognosis of Status Epilepticus in Adult Epilepsy Patients: Analysis with Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. Epilepsia 46:9, 1502-1509
CrossRef192
G. Brathen, E. Ben-Menachem, E. Brodtkorb, R. Galvin, J. C. Garcia-Monco, P. Halasz, M. Hillbom, M. A. Leone, A. B. Young. (2005) EFNS guideline on the diagnosis and management of alcohol-related seizures: report of an EFNS task force. European Journal of Neurology 12:8, 575-581
CrossRef193
Nathalie Jette, Lawrence J. Hirsch. (2005) Continuous electroencephalogram monitoring in critically ill patients. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 5:4, 312-321
CrossRef194
Max Wiznitzer. (2005) Buccal midazolam for seizures. The Lancet 366:9481, 182-183
CrossRef195
Trudy Pang, Lawrence J. Hirsch. (2005) Treatment of convulsive and nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 7:4, 247-259
CrossRef196
David E. Naylor, Claude G. Wasterlain. (2005) GABA Synapses and the Rapid Loss of Inhibition to Dentate Gyrus Granule Cells after Brief Perforant-Path Stimulation. Epilepsia 46:s5, 142-147
CrossRef197
K. J. Werhahn. (2005) Status epilepticus. Notfall & Rettungsmedizin 8:4, 261-264
CrossRef198
Thomas P Bleck. (2005) Refractory status epilepticus. Current Opinion in Critical Care 11:2, 117-120
CrossRef199
Christian N.A. Peters, Bernd Pohlmann-Eden. (2005) Intravenous valproate as an innovative therapy in seizure emergency situations including status epilepticus—experience in 102 adult patients. Seizure 14:3, 164-169
CrossRef200
Vincenzo Pucci, Maria Augusta Raggi. (2005) Analysis of antiepileptic drugs in biological fluids by means of electrokinetic chromatography. ELECTROPHORESIS 26:4-5, 767-782
CrossRef201
Reetta K??lvi??inen, Kai Eriksson, Ilkka Parviainen. (2005) Refractory Generalised Convulsive Status Epilepticus. CNS Drugs 19:9, 759-768
CrossRef202
Du Cheol Kang, Young-Mock Lee, JoonSoo Lee, Heung Dong Kim, ChangJun Coe. (2005) Prognostic Factors of Status Epilepticus in Children. Yonsei Medical Journal 46:1, 27
CrossRef203
Elizabeth Waterhouse. (2005) New Treatments for Refractory Status Epilepticus. Epilepsy Currents 5:2, 52-54
CrossRef204
R. F. M. Chin, B. G. R. Neville, R. C. Scott. (2004) A systematic review of the epidemiology of status epilepticus. European Journal of Neurology 11:12, 800-810
CrossRef205
W. Szurhaj, P. Derambure. (2004) Place de l’EEG dans l’épilepsie. Revue Neurologique 160:11, 1113-1119
CrossRef206
Andrew Fisher, Xiaolan Wang, Hannah R. Cock, Maria Thom, Philip N. Patsalos, Matthew C. Walker. (2004) Synergism between Topiramate and Budipine in Refractory Status Epilepticus in the Rat. Epilepsia 45:11, 1300-1307
CrossRef207
S SISODIYA. (2004) Epilepsy: management. Medicine 32:10, 52-56
CrossRef208
James L Meyerhoff, Jae K Lee, Bradley W Rittase, Anne Y Tsang, Debra L Yourick. (2004) Lipoic acid pretreatment attenuates ferric chloride-induced seizures in the rat. Brain Research 1016:2, 139-144
CrossRef209
Pierre Jallon. (2004) Mortality in patients with epilepsy. Current Opinion in Neurology 17:2, 141-146
CrossRef210
Weiwei Yen, John Williamson, Edward H Bertram, Jaideep Kapur. (2004) A comparison of three NMDA receptor antagonists in the treatment of prolonged status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 59:1, 43-50
CrossRef211
Mary Golf, Judith A. Paice, Edna Feulner, Colleen O'Leary, Susan Marcotte, Mary Mulcahy. (2004) Refractory Status Epilepticus. Journal of Palliative Medicine 7:1, 85-88
CrossRef212
Andrey M Mazarati, Roger Baldwin, Henrik Klitgaard, Alain Matagne, Claude G Wasterlain. (2004) Anticonvulsant effects of levetiracetam and levetiracetam–diazepam combinations in experimental status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 58:2-3, 167-174
CrossRef213
Susan C Urwin, David K Menon. (2004) Comparative Tolerability of Sedative Agents in Head-Injured Adults. Drug Safety 27:2, 107-133
CrossRef214
Jane G. Boggs. (2004) Mortality Associated with Status Epilepticus. Epilepsy Currents 4:1, 25-27
CrossRef215
Meriem K. Bensalem, Toufic A. Fakhoury. (2003) Topiramate and status epilepticus: report of three cases. Epilepsy & Behavior 4:6, 757-760
CrossRef216
Edward Faught. (2003) Clinical Presentations and Phenomenology of Myoclonus. Epilepsia 44, 7-12
CrossRef217
Susanna Narkilahti, Terhi J. Pirttila, Katarzyna Lukasiuk, Jarkko Tuunanen, Asla Pitkanen. (2003) Expression and activation of caspase 3 following status epilepticus in the rat. European Journal of Neuroscience 18:6, 1486-1496
CrossRef218
Martin Holtkamp, Julia Matzen, Katharina Buchheim, Matthew C. Walker, Hartmut Meierkord. (2003) Furosemide Terminates Limbic Status Epilepticus in Freely Moving Rats. Epilepsia 44:9, 1141-1144
CrossRef219
Howard P. Goodkin, Xianzeng Liu, Gregory L. Holmes. (2003) Diazepam Terminates Brief but Not Prolonged Seizures in Young, Naïve Rats. Epilepsia 44:8, 1109-1112
CrossRef220
Jan Claassen, Lawrence J. Hirsch, Stephan A. Mayer. (2003) Treatment of status epilepticus: a survey of neurologists. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 211:1-2, 37-41
CrossRef221
Luca Vignatelli, Caterina Tonon, Roberto D'Alessandro, . (2003) Incidence and Short-term Prognosis of Status Epilepticus in Adults in Bologna, Italy. Epilepsia 44:7, 964-968
CrossRef222
Bernhards R. Ogutu, Charles R. J. C. Newton, Simon N. Muchohi, Godfrey O. Otieno, Geoffrey Edwards, William M. Watkins, Gilbert O. Kokwaro. (2003) Pharmacokinetics and clinical effects of phenytoin and fosphenytoin in children with severe malaria and status epilepticus. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 56:1, 112-119
CrossRef223
Stephan J. Rüeegg, Marc A. Dichter. (2003) Diagnosis and treatment of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in an intensive care unit setting. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 5:2, 93-110
CrossRef224
E. M. Manno. (2003) New Management Strategies in the Treatment of Status Epilepticus. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 78:4, 508-518
CrossRef225
John N. Gaitanis, Frank W. Drislane. (2003) Status Epilepticus: A Review of Different Syndromes, Their Current Evaluation, and Treatment. The Neurologist 9:2, 61-76
CrossRef226
Jed A Hartings, Anthony J Williams, Frank C Tortella. (2003) Occurrence of nonconvulsive seizures, periodic epileptiform discharges, and intermittent rhythmic delta activity in rat focal ischemia. Experimental Neurology 179:2, 139-149
CrossRef227
Howard P. Goodkin, Jaideep Kapur. (2003) Responsiveness of Status Epilepticus to Treatment with Diazepan Decreases Rapidly as Seizure Duration Increases. Epilepsy Currents 3:1, 11-12
CrossRef228
Frank W. Drislane. 2003. Status Epilepticus. , 938-947.
CrossRef229
R.E Ramsay, D Cantrell, S.D Collins, J.K Walch, D.K Naritoku, J.C Cloyd, K Sommerville. (2003) Safety and tolerance of rapidly infused Depacon®. Epilepsy Research 52:3, 189-201
CrossRef230
David M. Treiman. 2003. Status Epilepticus. , 379-382.
CrossRef231
Lyle J. Dennis, Jan Claassen, Lawrence J. Hirsch, Ronald G. Emerson, E. Sander Connolly, Stephan A. Mayer. (2002) Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus after Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 51:5, 1136-1144
CrossRef232
Andrey M Mazarati, R.Duane Sofia, Claude G Wasterlain. (2002) Anticonvulsant and antiepileptogenic effects of fluorofelbamate in experimental status epilepticus. Seizure 11:7, 423-430
CrossRef233
Elizabeth J. Waterhouse. (2002) Status epilepticus. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 4:4, 309-317
CrossRef234
Jaideep Kapur. (2002) Prehospital Treatment of Status Epilepticus with Benzodiazepines Is Effective and Safe. Epilepsy Currents 2:4, 121-124
CrossRef235
Lawrence J. Hirsch, Jan Claassen. (2002) The current state of treatment of status epilepticus. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 2:4, 345-356
CrossRef236
E Wassmer, A Qureshi, P Davies, K Berry, W.P Whitehouse. (2002) Comparative audit of intravenous lorazepam and diazepam in the emergency treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children. Seizure 11:3, 141-144
CrossRef237
Mark L. Scheuer. (2002) Continuous EEG Monitoring in the Intensive Care Unit. Epilepsia 43, 114-127
CrossRef238
Thomas E. Lackner. (2002) Strategies for Optimizing Antiepileptic Drug Therapy in Elderly People. Pharmacotherapy 22:3, 329-364
CrossRef239
Richard P. Brenner. (2002) Is It Status?. Epilepsia 43, 103-113
CrossRef240
Avinash Prasad, John M. Williamson, Edward H. Bertram. (2002) Phenobarbital and MK-801, but not phenytoin, improve the long-term outcome of status epilepticus. Annals of Neurology 51:2, 175-181
CrossRef241
Jan Claassen, Lawrence J. Hirsch, Ronald G. Emerson, Stephan A. Mayer. (2002) Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus with Pentobarbital, Propofol, or Midazolam: A Systematic Review. Epilepsia 43:2, 146-153
CrossRef242
Robert S. Fisher, Jet Ho. (2002) Potential New Methods for Antiepileptic Drug Delivery. CNS Drugs 16:9, 579-593
CrossRef243
Steven Karceski, Martha Morrell, Daniel Carpenter. (2001) The Expert Consensus Guideline Series. Epilepsy & Behavior 2:6, A1-A50
CrossRef244
Alldredge, Brian K., Gelb, Alan M., Isaacs, S. Marshal, Corry, Megan D., Allen, Faith, Ulrich, SueKay, Gottwald, Mildred D., O'Neil, Nelda, Neuhaus, John M., Segal, Mark R., Lowenstein, Daniel H., . (2001) A Comparison of Lorazepam, Diazepam, and Placebo for the Treatment of Out-of-Hospital Status Epilepticus. New England Journal of Medicine 345:9, 631-637
Full Text245
Valenzuela, Terence D., , Copass, Michael K., . (2001) Clinical Research on Out-of-Hospital Emergency Care. New England Journal of Medicine 345:9, 689-690
Full Text246
W.O. Tatum IV, J.A. French, S.R. Benbadis, P.W. Kaplan. (2001) The Etiology and Diagnosis of Status Epilepticus. Epilepsy & Behavior 2:4, 311-317
CrossRef247
M. G. Chapman, M. Smith, N. P. Hirsch. (2001) Status epilepticus. Anaesthesia 56:7, 648-659
CrossRef248
J. Stephen Huff, Dexter L. Morris, Rashmi U. Kothari, Michael A. Gibbs. (2001) Emergency Department Management of Patients with Seizures: A Multicenter Study. Academic Emergency Medicine 8:6, 622-628
CrossRef249
Brien J. Smith. (2001) Treatment of status epilepticus. Neurologic Clinics 19:2, 347-369
CrossRef250
Panayiotis N. Varelas, Marek A. Mirski. (2001) Seizures in the Adult Intensive Care Unit. Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology 13:2, 163-175
CrossRef251
Patrick Kwan, Graeme J Sills, Martin J Brodie. (2001) The mechanisms of action of commonly used antiepileptic drugs. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 90:1, 21-34
CrossRef252
David M. Treiman. (2001) Therapy of status epilepticus in adults and children. Current Opinion in Neurology 14:2, 203-210
CrossRef253
Francesco Procaccio, Alberto Polo, Paola Lanteri, Francesco Sala. (2001) Electrophysiologic monitoring in neurointensive care. Current Opinion in Critical Care 7:2, 74-80
CrossRef254
Mark Quigg, Bassel Shneker, Paul Domer. (2001) Current Practice in Administration and Clinical Criteria of Emergent EEG. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 18:2, 162-165
CrossRef255
N Delanty, J.A French, D.R Labar, T.A Pedley, A.J Rowan. (2001) Status epilepticus arising de novo in hospitalized patients: an analysis of 41 patients. Seizure 10:2, 116-119
CrossRef256
M COLLINS, H MARIN, P RUTECKI, D HELLER. (2001) A Protocol for Status Epilepticus in a Long-Term Care Facility Using Rectal Diazepam (Diastat®). Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 2:2, 66-70
CrossRef257
Flavia M. Pryor, Barry Gidal, R. Eugene Ramsay, John DeToledo, Robert O. Morgan. (2001) Fosphenytoin: Pharmacokinetics and Tolerance of Intramuscular Loading Doses. Epilepsia 42:2, 245-250
CrossRef258
Martin Holtkamp, Xin Tong, Matthew C. Walker. (2001) Propofol in subanesthetic doses terminates status epilepticus in a rodent model. Annals of Neurology 49:2, 260-263
CrossRef259
Flavia M. Pryor, Barry Gidal, R. Eugene Ramsay, John DeToledo, Robert O. Morgan. (2001) Fosphenytoin: Pharmacokinetics and Tolerance of Intramuscular Loading Doses. Epilepsia 42, 245-250
CrossRef260
UNKNOWN. (2001) Full Length Article. Annales Françaises d’Anesthésie et de Réanimation 20:2, 159-170
CrossRef261
Santiago Arroyo, G??nter Kramer. (2001) Treating Epilepsy in the Elderly. Drug Safety 24:13, 991-1015
CrossRef262
Elizabeth J. Waterhouse, Robert J. DeLorenzo. (2001) Status Epilepticus in Older Patients. Drugs & Aging 18:2, 133-142
CrossRef263
Douglas J Borris, Edward H Bertram, Jaideep Kapur. (2000) Ketamine controls prolonged status epilepticus. Epilepsy Research 42:2-3, 117-122
CrossRef264
Nita A. Limdi, Edward Faught. (2000) The Safety of Rapid Valproic Acid Infusion. Epilepsia 41:10, 1342-1345
CrossRef265
Evelyne Peeters. (2000) Treatment of epileptic seizures as medical emergencies: a prospective analysis of a decision tree for nonmedically trained staff. Seizure 9:7, 473-479
CrossRef266
R. S. Vastyanov. (2000) Calcium channels participate in the induction ofStatus epilepticus by kainate in rats. Neurophysiology 32:3, 129-131
CrossRef267
Jane Crawley, Catherine Waruiru, Sadik Mithwani, Isiah Mwangi, William Watkins, David Ouma, Peter Winstanley, Timothy Peto, Kevin Marsh. (2000) Effect of phenobarbital on seizure frequency and mortality in childhood cerebral malaria: a randomised, controlled intervention study. The Lancet 355:9205, 701-706
CrossRef268
Nathan B. Fountain. (2000) Status Epilepticus: Risk Factors and Complications. Epilepsia 41:s2, S23-S30
CrossRef269
Mary Ann Cheng, René Tempelhoff. (1999) Anesthesia and epilepsy. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology 12:5, 523-528
CrossRef270
David M. Treiman. (1999) Convulsive status epilepticus. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 1:4, 359-369
CrossRef271
Marivi Niebauer, Michael Gruenthal. (1999) Neuroprotective effects of early vs. late administration of dantrolene in experimental status epilepticus. Neuropharmacology 38:9, 1343-1348
CrossRef272
Marivi Niebauer, Michael Gruenthal. (1999) Topiramate reduces neuronal injury after experimental status epilepticus. Brain Research 837:1-2, 263-269
CrossRef273
Peter W. Kaplan. (1999) Assessing the Outcomes in Patients With Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus: Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus Is Underdiagnosed, Potentially Overtreated, and Confounded by Comorbidity. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 16:4, 341-352
CrossRef274
Kenneth G. Jordan. (1999) Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus in Acute Brain Injury. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 16:4, 332-340
CrossRef275
Allan Krumholz. (1999) Epidemiology and Evidence for Morbidity of Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 16:4, 314-322
CrossRef276
Elizabeth J. Waterhouse, Linda K. Garnett, Alan R. Towne, Lawrence D. Morton, Thomas Barnes, Daijin Ko, Robert J. DeLorenzo. (1999) Prospective Population-Based Study of Intermittent and Continuous Convulsive Status Epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia. Epilepsia 40:6, 752-758
CrossRef277
Brian K. Alldredge, Daniel H. Lowenstein. (1999) Status epilepticus: new concepts. Current Opinion in Neurology 12:2, 183-190
CrossRef278
Timothy G. Lukovits, Michael C. Smith. (1999) Update on status epilepticus. Current Opinion in Critical Care 5:2, 107
CrossRef279
Daniel H. Lowenstein, Thomas Bleck, Robert L. Macdonald. (1999) It's Time to Revise the Definition of Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia 40:1, 120-122
CrossRef280
Kenneth G. Jordan. (1999) Continuous EEG Monitoring in the Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit and Emergency Department. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 16:1, 14-39
CrossRef281
Thomas P. Bleck. (1999) Management Approaches to Prolonged Seizures and Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia 40:s1, s59-s63
CrossRef
