Review Article

Medical Progress

Small-Vessel Vasculitis

J. Charles Jennette, M.D., and Ronald J. Falk, M.D.

N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1512-1523November 20, 1997DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199711203372106

Article

Vasculitis is inflammation of vessel walls. It has many causes, although they result in only a few histologic patterns of vascular inflammation. Vessels of any type in any organ can be affected, a fact that results in a wide variety of signs and symptoms. These protean clinical manifestations, combined with the etiologic nonspecificity of the histologic lesions, complicate the diagnosis of specific forms of vasculitis. This is problematic because different vasculitides with indistinguishable clinical presentations have very different prognoses and treatments. For example, a patient with purpura, nephritis, and abdominal pain caused by Henoch–Schönlein purpura usually has a good prognosis and needs only supportive care, whereas a patient with purpura, nephritis, and abdominal pain caused by microscopic polyangiitis is likely to go on to life-threatening organ failure if not treated promptly and appropriately.

In recent years there has been substantial progress in identifying the attributes of specific types of vasculitis that allow accurate diagnosis. One approach to classifying noninfectious vasculitides categorizes them, in part, on the basis of the predominant type of vessel affected (Table 1Table 1Major Categories of Noninfectious Vasculitis. and Table 2Table 2Names and Definitions of Vasculitis Adopted by the Chapel Hill Consensus Conference on the Nomenclature of Systemic Vasculitis. and Figure 1Figure 1Preferred Sites of Vascular Involvement by Selected Vasculitides.).1 There is, however, substantial overlap among different vasculitides, and the type of vessel involved is merely one of many features that must be determined before a diagnosis can be rendered.

This review will focus on noninfectious necrotizing small-vessel vasculitis, beginning with a history of the discovery of the major categories of the disease and concluding with a review of its diagnosis and treatment. Small-vessel vasculitis is defined as vasculitis that affects vessels smaller than arteries, such as arterioles, venules, and capillaries. Important categories of the disease are listed in Table 1. It is important to note that small-vessel vasculitis sometimes, but not always, also affects arteries, and thus the vascular distribution overlaps with that of the medium-sized-vessel and large-vessel vasculitides (Figure 1).

Historical Background

Two paths of investigation, which eventually intersected, led to our current understanding of small-vessel vasculitis. One focused on necrotizing arteritis, and the other on purpura.

Discovery and Categorization of Necrotizing Arteritis

Kussmaul and Maier published the first definitive report of a patient with necrotizing arteritis in 1866.2 They described a patient with fever, anorexia, muscle weakness, paresthesias, myalgias, abdominal pain, and oliguria who was found to have nodular inflammatory lesions in medium-sized and small arteries throughout the body. They called this condition periarteritis nodosa, which evolved into the more pathologically correct name polyarteritis nodosa. For more than 50 years (and unfortunately even today in some settings), any patient with necrotizing arteritis was given a diagnosis of polyarteritis nodosa.

By the 1950s, many investigators had realized that there were a number of clinically and pathologically distinct forms of arteritis and that arteritis often occurred as a component of a vasculitis in which many if not most of the involved vessels were smaller than arteries (e.g., dermal venules, mucosal arterioles, glomerular capillaries, and pulmonary alveolar capillaries).3-7 Zeek et al. called this form of vasculitis with small-vessel involvement “hypersensitivity angiitis,”5,6 whereas Davson et al.4 and Godman and Churg7 referred to it as the “microscopic form of periarteritis.” In 1994, the term “microscopic polyangiitis” was advocated by an international consensus conference on vasculitis nomenclature,1 and it will be used in this review. “Microscopic polyangiitis” is preferable as a name to “microscopic polyarteritis,” because many patients with this type of vasculitis have disease confined to arterioles, venules, and capillaries and thus have no arteritis.

Also by the 1950s, two variants of vasculitis with associated necrotizing granulomatous inflammation had been recognized — i.e., Wegener's granulomatosis and Churg–Strauss syndrome. Wegener's granulomatosis was initially reported by Klinger in 19318 and later described in more detail by Wegener.9 The definitive description was provided in 1954 by Godman and Churg, who identified a triad of features: systemic necrotizing “angiitis,” necrotizing inflammation of the respiratory tract, and necrotizing glomerulonephritis.7 Subsequently, patients with limited expressions of the disease were recognized — for example, patients with no glomerulonephritis.10

Churg and Strauss, in 1951, described 13 patients who had asthma, eosinophilia, granulomatous inflammation, necrotizing systemic vasculitis, and necrotizing glomerulonephritis.11 This disease is now called Churg–Strauss syndrome.

In their landmark 1954 article,7 Godman and Churg concluded that Wegener's granulomatosis, Churg–Strauss syndrome, and the “microscopic form of periarteritis” (microscopic polyangiitis) are closely related and distinct from polyarteritis nodosa. As will be discussed later, this conclusion is supported by recent immunologic observations.

Pathological evaluation of patients with arterial inflammation demonstrated that histologically indistinguishable necrotizing arteritis (Figure 2Figure 2Necrotizing Arteritis in a Small Epineural Artery in a Nerve-Biopsy Specimen from a Patient with Microscopic Polyangiitis.) is shared by a variety of vasculitides, including polyarteritis nodosa, Kawasaki's disease, microscopic polyangiitis, Wegener's granulomatosis, and Churg–Strauss syndrome. However, whereas medium-sized-vessel vasculitis, such as polyarteritis nodosa and Kawasaki's disease, involves predominantly if not exclusively arteries, small-vessel vasculitis, such as microscopic polyangiitis and Wegener's granulomatosis, may or may not include arteritis but virtually always affects vessels smaller than arteries (Figure 1). By the 1980s, this concept of “small-vessel vasculitides” that are distinct from vasculitides affecting predominantly medium-sized and large arteries was well established.12

Historical Description of the Manifestations of Venulitis and Capillaritis

Purpura (Figure 3Figure 3Purpura on the Lower Leg of a Patient Found to Have Leukocytoclastic Angiitis in a Skin-Biopsy Specimen.) was the first manifestation of vasculitis in vessels smaller than arteries to be extensively investigated. In 1808, Willan clearly distinguished purpura caused by systemic febrile infections from noninfectious purpura.13 He noted that noninfectious purpura had a predilection for the lower extremities, was characterized by recurrent groups of lesions, and could be associated with systemic disease. Over the next century, Schönlein,14 Henoch,15,16 Osler,17,18 and others elucidated a broad spectrum of signs and symptoms that were associated with purpura, and thus with small-vessel vasculitis, including arthritis, peripheral neuropathy, abdominal pain, pulmonary hemorrhage, epistaxis, iritis, and nephritis. Osler recognized that these clinical manifestations were caused by necrotizing inflammation in small vessels.17,18

In 1919, Goodpasture reported a patient with pulmonary hemorrhage and rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis who had vasculitis affecting small splenic arteries, arterioles in the gut, pulmonary capillaries, and glomerular capillaries.19 This pulmonary–renal vasculitic syndrome is now recognized to be a manifestation of multiple pathogenetically distinct forms of small-vessel vasculitis. The designation “Goodpasture's syndrome” now is usually restricted to patients with vascular injury caused by antibodies to glomerular basement membrane,20 even though most patients with pulmonary–renal vasculitic syndrome have some other small-vessel vasculitis21,22 and the vasculitis in Goodpasture's patient was probably not caused by these antibodies.23

By the 1950s, the histologic features of necrotizing vasculitis in venules and other small vessels had been well described, including the conspicuous leukocytoclasia, which prompted the etiologically nonspecific pathological term “leukocytoclastic angiitis”24,25 (Figure 4Figure 4Leukocytoclastic Angiitis in a Skin-Biopsy Specimen from a Patient with Purpura.). The similarity of this pattern of injury to the Arthus reaction, as well as an association between some cases of necrotizing vasculitis and exposure to drugs and foreign proteins, led to the contention that some if not most necrotizing vasculitides were hypersensitivity diseases.5,6,12,18,24-28

The ability to identify pathogenic antibodies in tissue and serum by immunofluorescence microscopy led to discoveries that allowed the categorization of certain small-vessel vasculitides — for example, recognition of antibodies to glomerular basement membrane as the cause of some cases of pulmonary–renal vasculitic syndrome29-31; the identification of a subgroup of patients with purpura, arthralgias, and glomerulonephritis caused by the deposition of cryoglobulin32; the identification of vascular IgA deposits as a marker for Henoch–Schönlein purpura33; and the detection of pathogen-derived antigens and cognate antibodies in the vessels of patients with small-vessel vasculitis that is associated with infections such as hepatitis B.34 These and other observations supported the concept of an immune-complex pathogenesis for at least some forms of small-vessel vasculitis; however, evaluation of a wide range of vasculitides failed to document a high frequency of vascular immune complexes in many important categories, including Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg–Strauss syndrome.21,35,36 This absence or paucity of vascular immune deposits distinguished the “pauci-immune” vasculitides from the immune-complex vasculitides, but categorization based on negative data was unsettling. This problem was resolved, in part, with the discovery of antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies (ANCA).

Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Autoantibodies

In 1982, Davies and his associates reported having detected antibodies that reacted with neutrophil cytoplasm in eight patients with pauci-immune necrotizing glomerulonephritis and small-vessel vasculitis.37 Two years later, Hall et al. confirmed this observation in four patients with small-vessel vasculitis.38 These first two articles on ANCA did not receive much attention, but a 1985 article by van der Woude and his collaborators generated substantial interest by suggesting that detection of ANCA was a useful diagnostic and prognostic marker for Wegener's granulomatosis.39 Subsequent studies revealed that ANCA are closely associated with three major categories of small-vessel vasculitis: Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg–Strauss syndrome40-42 — the same three diseases that Godman and Churg had concluded were related in their 1954 publication.7

ANCA are specific for antigens in neutrophil granules and monocyte lysosomes. They can be detected with indirect immunofluorescence microscopy by using alcohol-fixed neutrophils as substrate. This produces two major staining patterns: cytoplasmic ANCA and perinuclear ANCA. Specific immunochemical assays demonstrate two major antigen specificities in patients with vasculitis: antimyeloperoxidase (MPO-ANCA)43 and antiproteinase 3 (PR3-ANCA).44-47 In patients with vasculitis, approximately 90 percent of cytoplasmic ANCA are PR3-ANCA and approximately 90 percent of perinuclear ANCA are MPO-ANCA. Either ANCA specificity may occur in a patient with any type of ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis; however, most patients with Wegener's granulomatosis have PR3-ANCA (cytoplasmic ANCA), whereas most patients with microscopic polyangiitis or Churg–Strauss syndrome have MPO-ANCA (perinuclear ANCA).41-43 It is very important to realize that approximately 10 percent of patients with typical Wegener's granulomatosis or microscopic polyangiitis have negative assays for ANCA; thus, ANCA negativity does not completely rule out these diseases. In addition, the specificity of ANCA positivity is not absolute; thus, a positive result is not diagnostic for an ANCA-associated vasculitis, especially if the result of an indirect immunofluorescence assay has not been confirmed by a more specific immunochemical assay for PR3-ANCA or MPO-ANCA.48

The addition of serologic tests for ANCA to the diagnostic armamentarium provided a positive marker for certain types of pauci-immune small-vessel vasculitis. Testing for ANCA, along with other immunopathologic markers such as vascular IgA deposits and serum cryoglobulins, facilitates the diagnostic categorization of small-vessel vasculitis (Table 3Table 3Differential Diagnostic Features of Several Forms of Small-Vessel Vasculitis.).

Diagnosis and Treatment of Small-Vessel Vasculitis

The first step in diagnosis is to recognize that small-vessel vasculitis is present, and the second, more difficult step is to determine the specific type of the disease. The signs and symptoms of small-vessel vasculitis are extremely varied, and many are shared by all small-vessel vasculitides. Diagnosis requires assessment of both the presence of prerequisite features and, just as important, the absence of incompatible features (Table 3). Accurate diagnosis is important, because the prognosis and appropriate treatment are different for different types of small-vessel vasculitis.

General Signs and Symptoms of Small-Vessel Vasculitis

Constitutional signs and symptoms, such as fever, myalgias, arthralgias, and malaise, often accompany small-vessel vasculitis. Many patients describe a “flu-like” syndrome early in the course of their disease. Arthralgias are migratory and affect both small and large joints, with evidence of synovitis in 10 to 20 percent of patients. Vessels in the skin, respiratory tract, kidneys, gut, peripheral nerves, and skeletal muscle are often involved, but the frequencies vary among categories of small-vessel vasculitis (Table 4Table 4Approximate Frequency of Organ-System Manifestations in Several Forms of Small-Vessel Vasculitis.). For example, Wegener's granulomatosis and microscopic polyangiitis are more likely to cause pulmonary–renal syndrome, whereas cryoglobulinemic vasculitis and Henoch–Schönlein purpura are more likely to cause dermal–renal syndrome.

The most common cutaneous lesion is leukocytoclastic angiitis (Figure 4), which typically causes purpura, sometimes with slight focal necrosis and ulceration, that preferentially affects the lower extremities (Figure 3).27,66 Necrotizing arteritis in small dermal and subcutaneous arteries causes erythematous tender nodules, focal necrosis, ulceration, and livedo reticularis. Patients with Wegener's granulomatosis and Churg–Strauss syndrome may also have cutaneous nodules caused by granulomatous inflammation. Urticaria can be a manifestation of small-vessel vasculitis, especially when there is immune-complex deposition with extensive complement activation. Unlike nonvasculitic allergic urticaria, vasculitic urticaria lasts for more than a day, may evolve into purpuric lesions, and may be accompanied by hypocomplementemia.67

Peripheral neuropathy, especially mononeuritis multiplex, is the most common neurologic manifestation.68,69 This is caused by inflammation of small epineural arteries and arterioles, resulting in neural ischemia. Both sensory and motor fibers are involved. Central nervous system disease usually results from involvement of the meningeal vessel.

Necrotizing inflammation in small arteries, arterioles, and venules in skeletal muscle and viscera causes pain and elevations of tissue enzymes in the blood. Ischemic ulceration in the gut causes not only abdominal pain but also blood in the stool. Intussusception and perforation of the gut and pancreatitis are serious complications.

Respiratory tract disease is frequent in ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis and in Goodpasture's syndrome but is rare in immune-complex small-vessel vasculitis, such as Henoch–Schönlein purpura and cryoglobulinemic vasculitis (Table 4). Inflammation of the upper respiratory tract is frequent in small-vessel vasculitis associated with ANCA. Pulmonary manifestations range from fleeting focal infiltrates to massive pulmonary hemorrhage and hemoptysis caused by hemorrhagic alveolar capillaritis (Figure 5Figure 5Pulmonary Hemorrhagic Alveolar Capillaritis in a Patient with ANCA-Associated Small-Vessel Vasculitis in Whom Severe Hemoptysis Developed.), the most life-threatening feature of small-vessel vasculitis. Granulomatous pulmonary inflammation of Wegener's granulomatosis and Churg–Strauss syndrome cause nodular and occasionally cavitating radiographic densities. The acute inflammatory and necrotizing pulmonary lesions evolve into chronic nonspecific sclerotic lesions, such as interstitial fibrosis, organized intraalveolar fibrosis, and bronchiolitis obliterans.70

Diagnostic Strategy

There are no agreed-upon diagnostic criteria for the various categories of small-vessel vasculitis. In 1990 the American College of Rheumatology published an approach to classifying vasculitides for clinical trials.71 These criteria were not designed for diagnosis, although they are being widely used for this purpose. They are not adequate for differentiating among the various clinicopathological expressions of small-vessel vasculitis. For example, a 20-year-old patient with small-vessel vasculitis who has purpura, leukocytoclastic angiitis, myalgias, mononeuritis multiplex, and nephritis would simultaneously fulfill the College's criteria for three different categories of vasculitis: hypersensitivity vasculitis, Henoch–Schönlein purpura, and polyarteritis nodosa. The system does not have a category called “microscopic polyangiitis” or “microscopic polyarteritis”; thus, most cases of ANCA-positive microscopic polyangiitis would be called hypersensitivity angiitis, according to the College's system.

In 1994 the Chapel Hill International Consensus Conference proposed names and definitions for selected categories of vasculitis1; however, no diagnostic criteria were suggested.

The following discussion presents a number of observations that can be made to help determine which definition of vasculitis is met in a given patient, and thus the diagnosis. This requires the knowledgeable integration of clinical and laboratory data, both positive and negative. Laboratory assessment for ANCA, antinuclear antibodies, complement, cryoglobulins, fecal blood, antibodies to hepatitis B and C, rheumatoid factor, azotemia, hematuria, and proteinuria is useful. Chest and sinus radiographs and computed tomographic scans may reveal occult respiratory tract disease. Nerve-conduction studies can document peripheral neuropathy. Evidence of conditions that are known to cause vasculitis, such as drug hypersensitivity, infection, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, cancer, and inflammatory bowel disease, should be sought. Pathological examination of involved tissue, such as skin, muscle, nerve, lung, or kidney, may document small-vessel vasculitis. Immunohistologic evaluation may yield more specific information, such as the presence of IgA-dominant vascular immune deposits indicative of Henoch–Schönlein purpura, or IgM and IgG immune complexes that are consistent with cryoglobulinemic vasculitis.

Cutaneous Leukocytoclastic Angiitis

Small-vessel vasculitis may be confined to the skin. The characteristic acute lesion is leukocytoclastic angiitis involving dermal postcapillary venules (Figure 4). This lesion is histologically identical to dermal lesions occurring as a component of systemic small-vessel vasculitis.66 Therefore, the onus is on the physician to rule out systemic disease.

Drug-induced vasculitis should be considered in any patient with small-vessel vasculitis and will be substantiated most often in patients with vasculitis confined to the skin. Drugs cause approximately 10 percent of vasculitic skin lesions.72,73 Drug-induced vasculitis usually develops within 7 to 21 days after treatment begins.

Drugs that have been implicated include penicillins, aminopenicillins, sulfonamides, allopurinol, thiazides, pyrazolones, retinoids, quinolones, hydantoins, and propylthiouracil.74 Some drugs, such as penicillins, cause vasculitis by conjugating to serum proteins and mediating immune-complex vasculitis that is similar to serum-sickness vasculitis.75 Other vasculitis-inducing drugs that cause immune-complex formation are foreign proteins, such as streptokinase, cytokines, and monoclonal antibodies.76 In addition, such drugs as propylthiouracil and hydralazine appear to cause vasculitis by inducing ANCA,77-80 although a cause-and-effect relation has not been proved.

Most patients with cutaneous leukocytoclastic angiitis have a single episode that resolves spontaneously within several weeks or a few months.81 Approximately 10 percent will have recurrent disease at intervals of months to years. In the absence of systemic disease, management is usually symptomatic. Drugs that could cause the disease should be stopped. Antihistamines and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs help alleviate cutaneous discomfort and reduce associated arthralgias and myalgias.81 Severe cutaneous disease may warrant oral corticosteroid therapy.81 If signs or symptoms of systemic vasculitis develop, treatment should be based on the type of systemic vasculitis the patient has.

Henoch–Schönlein Purpura

Henoch–Schönlein purpura is the most common systemic vasculitis in children.82 It is characterized by vascular deposition of IgA-dominant immune complexes,1,33 and preferentially involves venules, capillaries, and arterioles (Figure 1).

Henoch–Schönlein purpura is most frequent in childhood, with a peak incidence at five years old.49,50,82 The disease often begins after an upper respiratory tract infection. Purpura, arthralgias, and colicky abdominal pain are the most frequent manifestations (Table 4). Approximately half the patients have hematuria and proteinuria, but only 10 to 20 percent have renal insufficiency. Rapidly progressive renal failure is rare. Pulmonary disease and peripheral neuropathy are uncommon.83,84

The overall prognosis is excellent; thus, supportive care suffices for most patients. The main long-term morbidity is from progressive renal disease. End-stage renal disease develops in approximately 5 percent of patients.51 Treatment for aggressive Henoch–Schönlein purpura glomerulonephritis is controversial. Corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, and anticoagulant therapy have been tried with contradictory results, but a recent study suggests that combined therapy with corticosteroids and azathioprine may be beneficial.85

Although the term “Henoch–Schönlein purpura” was originally used to designate a syndrome that can be characterized by many different types of small-vessel vasculitis (i.e., combinations of purpura, abdominal pain, and nephritis), the use of the term should now be restricted to the specific clinicopathological entity caused by vascular IgA-dominant immune complexes.1 The misuse of this term for patients with ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis who present with purpura, abdominal pain, and nephritis is particularly problematic, because these patients do not have a good prognosis and should be treated quickly with immunosuppressive therapy, as will be discussed later in this review.

Cryoglobulinemic Vasculitis

Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis is caused by the localization of mixed cryoglobulins in vessel walls, which incites acute inflammation. Venules, capillaries, and arterioles are preferentially involved (Figure 1).

Patients with this disease have an average age of approximately 50 years. The most frequent manifestations are purpura, arthralgias, and nephritis (Table 4).52 Mixed cryoglobulins and rheumatoid-factor activity are typically detectable in serum. Most patients have an associated infection with hepatitis C virus, which is thought to be etiologic.53,86,87 A very distinctive and diagnostically useful complement abnormality is the presence of very low levels of early components (especially C4) with normal or slightly low C3 levels.53,87 As with Henoch–Schönlein purpura, the main cause of morbidity is progressive glomerulonephritis, which most often has a type I membranoproliferative phenotype.

Mild disease, such as slight purpura and arthralgias, usually is adequately treated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs alone. Serious visceral involvement, such as in glomerulonephritis, usually requires treatment with corticosteroids combined with a cytotoxic drug (e.g., cyclophosphamide), which improves the outcome of glomerulonephritis and also ameliorates purpura, arthralgias, and other vasculitic symptoms.53,87 Plasmapheresis has been used, but its value is unproved. Recently, interferon alfa has been touted as a beneficial adjuvant in patients with cryoglobulinemic vasculitis associated with hepatitis C virus infection,53,87 but larger controlled trials are required before the value of this approach can be conclusively determined.

Anca-Associated Small-Vessel Vasculitis

ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis is the most common primary systemic small-vessel vasculitis in adults and includes three major categories: Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg–Strauss syndrome. These histologically identical small-vessel vasculitides preferentially involve venules, capillaries, and arterioles, and may also involve arteries and veins (Figure 1).88 Wegener's granulomatosis is differentiated from the other two by the presence of necrotizing granulomatous inflammation in the absence of asthma; Churg–Strauss syndrome is differentiated by the presence of asthma, eosinophilia, and necrotizing granulomatous inflammation; and microscopic polyangiitis is differentiated by the absence of granulomatous inflammation and asthma1 (Table 2 and Table 3). Rapid diagnosis of ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis is critically important, because life-threatening injury to organs often develops quickly and is mitigated dramatically by immunosuppressive treatment.

ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis affects people of all ages but is most common in older adults in their 50s and 60s, and it affects men and women equally.54,89 In the United States the disease is more frequent among whites than blacks.89 Its incidence is approximately 2 in 100,000 people in the United Kingdom90 and approximately 1 in 100,000 in Sweden.54 Although Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg–Strauss syndrome are categorized as ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis, it is important to realize that a minority of patients with typical clinical and pathological features of these diseases are ANCA-negative.

Wegener's granulomatosis. Over 90 percent of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis have upper or lower respiratory tract disease or both.55-57 Manifestations of upper respiratory tract disease include sinus pain, purulent sinus drainage, nasal mucosal ulceration with epistaxis, and otitis media. More serious complications include necrosis of the nasal septum with perforation or saddle-nose deformation and injury to the facial nerve by otitis media resulting in facial paralysis. Tracheal inflammation and sclerosis, often in the subglottic region, cause stridor and may lead to dangerous airway stenosis, which occurs in approximately 15 percent of adults and almost 50 percent of children with this disease.57 A minority of patients initially have indolent or aggressive upper respiratory tract disease alone, but most also have pulmonary disease.

Necrotizing granulomatous pulmonary inflammation produces nodular radiographic densities, whereas alveolar capillaritis causes pulmonary hemorrhage with less fixed and more irregular infiltrates. Massive pulmonary hemorrhage caused by capillaritis is the most life-threatening manifestation of ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis and warrants rapid institution of aggressive immunosuppressive therapy.

Approximately 80 percent of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis will go on to have glomerulonephritis, although less than 20 percent have nephritis at the time of presentation.57 The glomerulonephritis is characterized by focal necrosis, crescent formation, and the absence or paucity of immunoglobulin deposits.35,88 An identical pauci-immune necrotizing and crescentic glomerulonephritis occurs in patients with microscopic polyangiitis and Churg–Strauss syndrome, and also occurs as a disease limited to the kidneys. Other manifestations of the disease include ocular inflammation, cutaneous purpura and nodules, peripheral neuropathy, arthritis, and diverse abdominal visceral involvement (Table 4).55-57

The classic triad of respiratory tract granulomatous inflammation, systemic small-vessel vasculitis, and necrotizing glomerulonephritis7 readily suggests the diagnosis, but atypical presentations, such as isolated subglottic stenosis or orbital pseudotumor, may not. In patients with the latter presentation, a positive ANCA test is helpful for substantiating a diagnosis of Wegener's granulomatosis.91,92

Treatment of aggressive Wegener's granulomatosis, as well as of microscopic polyangiitis, has three phases: induction of remission, maintenance of remission, and treatment of relapse.93 After the seminal observations of Novack and Pearson,94 Fauci and his associates documented the value of cyclophosphamide in the treatment of Wegener's granulomatosis.55 Current induction therapy often uses cyclophosphamide combined with corticosteroids. Corticosteroids alone may be adequate for ameliorating indolent limited disease but are inadequate for patients with generalized disease.57 In patients with Wegener's granulomatosis or microscopic polyangiitis who have aggressive disease, such as acute nephritis or pulmonary hemorrhage, we recommend induction with intravenous methylprednisolone at a dose of 7 mg per kilogram of body weight per day for three days, followed by tapering doses of prednisone. This treatment is combined with oral cyclophosphamide at 2 mg per kilogram per day, or intravenous cyclophosphamide at 0.5 g per square meter of body-surface area per month, adjusted upward to 1 g per square meter on the basis of the patient's leukocyte count.58 Combined therapy with corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide induces improvement in over 90 percent of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis and complete remission in 75 percent.59 A common strategy is to discontinue corticosteroids after remission is achieved, usually within 3 to 5 months, and to continue cyclophosphamide for 6 to 12 months. An alternative strategy for maintaining remission is conversion from cyclophosphamide to azathioprine once remission is achieved.90 Approximately 50 percent of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis have at least one relapse within five years.59 The best treatment for reversing relapses is controversial but usually involves reinstituting treatment similar to the induction regimen.57

Both corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide predispose patients to life-threatening infections, and cyclophosphamide causes hemorrhagic cystitis, ovarian and testicular failure, and cancer. For example, Talar-Williams et al. have estimated the incidence of bladder cancer after the first exposure to cyclophosphamide to be 5 percent 10 years after treatment and 16 percent after 15 years.95 The risks and benefits of aggressive immunosuppression must be assessed in each patient, and the treatment tailored accordingly. There should be vigilance for and prompt treatment of complications arising from treatment.

Less-toxic therapy may be sufficient in patients with localized or mild Wegener's granulomatosis. For example, Sneller et al. achieved remission with low-dose methotrexate plus prednisone in 71 percent of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis that was “not immediately life-threatening.” 96 Methotrexate also may be useful for maintenance of remission.97 Treatment with methotrexate is limited in patients with renal disease because of increased toxicity.

Because relapses are associated with respiratory tract infections and with chronic nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus, 98 the antimicrobial agent trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole has been evaluated for maintenance of remission, with mixed results. Stegeman et al.99 concluded that it is useful for maintaining remission, but de Groot et al. did not agree.97

Microscopic polyangiitis. Microscopic polyangiitis is characterized by pauci-immune necrotizing small-vessel vasculitis without clinical or pathological evidence of necrotizing granulomatous inflammation (Table 2 and Table 3).1 Over 80 percent of patients with microscopic polyangiitis have ANCA, most often perinuclear ANCA (MPO-ANCA).40-42,54 This helps distinguish microscopic polyangiitis from ANCA-negative small-vessel vasculitis but does not distinguish microscopic polyangiitis from other types of disease associated with ANCA. Positive ANCA and negative serologic tests for hepatitis B help differentiate microscopic polyangiitis from polyarteritis nodosa.60

Pathologically, microscopic polyangiitis may cause necrotizing arteritis that is histologically identical to that caused by polyarteritis nodosa. By the approach advocated by the Chapel Hill Consensus Conference (Table 2),1 polyarteritis nodosa and microscopic polyangiitis are distinguished pathologically by the absence of vasculitis in vessels other than arteries in polyarteritis nodosa and the presence of vasculitis in vessels smaller than arteries (i.e., arterioles, venules, and capillaries) in microscopic polyangiitis. According to this definition, the presence of dermal leukocytoclastic venulitis, glomerulonephritis, pulmonary alveolar capillaritis, or vasculitis in any vessel smaller than an artery would exclude a diagnosis of polyarteritis nodosa and indicate some form of small-vessel vasculitis. On the other hand, identification of necrotizing arteritis in a skeletal-muscle biopsy or peripheral-nerve biopsy, for example, indicates some form of necrotizing vasculitis but is not diagnostic of polyarteritis nodosa, because many other necrotizing vasculitides, such as microscopic polyangiitis, Wegener's granulomatosis, and Churg–Strauss syndrome, can also affect arteries (Figure 1).

Microscopic polyangiitis has the same spectrum of manifestations of small-vessel vasculitis as Wegener's granulomatosis but does not include granulomatous inflammation.54,58,61,62 Approximately 90 percent of patients have glomerulonephritis, which is accompanied by a variety of other organ involvements (Table 4). Microscopic polyangiitis is the most common cause of the pulmonary–renal syndrome.22

Microscopic polyangiitis that is causing major organ damage is treated with a combination of corticosteroids and cytotoxic agents. Our treatment approach is the same as that for aggressive Wegener's granulomatosis, which was described earlier in this review, and uses intravenous methylprednisolone followed by prednisone combined with intravenous or oral cyclophosphamide.58 Alveolar capillaritis (Figure 5) with pulmonary hemorrhage is the most life-threatening complication and should be treated promptly with combined therapy,58,61 and possibly with plasmapheresis.61 The glomerulonephritis is usually rapidly progressive if not promptly and appropriately treated with a combination of high-dose corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide, which induces remission in approximately 80 percent of patients.58,61 The greatest risk factor for a poor renal outcome is a delay in treatment until renal insufficiency has developed.63 Relapse occurs in about a third of patients within two years.54,58,61 Approximately two thirds of patients who relapse respond to an immunosuppressive regimen similar to the induction therapy.

Because the treatment of microscopic polyangiitis and Wegener's granulomatosis is essentially the same when there is major organ injury, it is not necessary to distinguish conclusively between these closely related variants of ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis before starting treatment. For example, an ANCA-positive patient with pulmonary infiltrates, hemoptysis, and pauci-immune crescentic glomerulonephritis on renal biopsy may have either microscopic polyangiitis or Wegener's granulomatosis. Resolving this differential diagnosis should not delay the start of induction therapy with combined corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide.

Churg–Strauss syndrome. Churg–Strauss syndrome has three phases: allergic rhinitis and asthma; eosinophilic infiltrative disease, such as eosinophilic pneumonia or gastroenteritis; and systemic small-vessel vasculitis with granulomatous inflammation.62,64,65 The vasculitic phase usually develops within three years of the onset of asthma, although it may be delayed for several decades. Approximately 70 percent of patients with this disease have ANCA, usually perinuclear ANCA (MPO-ANCA).62 Virtually all patients have eosinophilia (more than 10 percent eosinophils in the blood).65

As compared with Wegener's granulomatosis and microscopic polyangiitis, Churg–Strauss syndrome involves much less frequent and less severe renal disease, but more frequent neuropathy and cardiac disease.62,65 Coronary arteritis and myocarditis are the principal causes of morbidity and mortality, accounting for approximately 50 percent of deaths, and can be reduced by early treatment.

High-dose corticosteroid treatment alone is often adequate, although refractory or relapsing disease may require the addition of a cytotoxic drug — for example, in a regimen similar to that used for Wegener's granulomatosis or microscopic polyangiitis.62,64

Recommendations

Treatment of a patient with small-vessel vasculitis should include these steps: recognition that small-vessel vasculitis is present, determination of as specific a diagnosis as possible, determination of the prognosis, and initiation of therapy or referral to an appropriate specialist. In many patients, small-vessel vasculitis will have a relatively benign, self-limited course, especially if disease is limited to the skin; however, for the patients with aggressive disease, such as generalized ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitis, it is imperative to begin appropriate treatment quickly. The goal should be neither to overtreat mild disease nor to undertreat severe disease.

We are indebted to the other members of the Chapel Hill Consensus Conference on the Nomenclature of Systemic Vasculitis for their contributions to our understanding of vasculitis: K. Andrassy, P.A. Bacon, J. Churg, W.L. Gross, E.C. Hagen, G.S. Hoffman, G.G. Hunder, C.G.M. Kallenberg, R.T. McCluskey, R.A. Sinico, A.J. Rees, L.A. van Es, R. Waldherr, and A. Wiik.

Source Information

From the Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (J.C.J.) and Medicine (R.J.F.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill.

Address reprint requests to Dr. Jennette at CB#7525, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7525.

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