Original Article
Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women
N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1491-1499November 20, 1997
- Abstract
Background
The relation between dietary intake of specific types of fat, particularly trans unsaturated fat, and the risk of coronary disease remains unclear. We therefore studied this relation in women enrolled in the Nurses' Health Study.
Methods
We prospectively studied 80,082 women who were 34 to 59 years of age and had no known coronary disease, stroke, cancer, hypercholesterolemia, or diabetes in 1980. Information on diet was obtained at base line and updated during follow-up by means of validated questionnaires. During 14 years of follow-up, we documented 939 cases of nonfatal myocardial infarction or death from coronary heart disease. Multivariate analyses included age, smoking status, total energy intake, dietary cholesterol intake, percentages of energy obtained from protein and specific types of fat, and other risk factors.
Results
Each increase of 5 percent of energy intake from saturated fat, as compared with equivalent energy intake from carbohydrates, was associated with a 17 percent increase in the risk of coronary disease (relative risk, 1.17; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.97 to 1.41; P = 0.10). As compared with equivalent energy from carbohydrates, the relative risk for a 2 percent increment in energy intake from trans unsaturated fat was 1.93 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.43 to 2.61; P<0.001); that for a 5 percent increment in energy from monounsaturated fat was 0.81 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.65 to 1.00; P = 0.05); and that for a 5 percent increment in energy from polyunsaturated fat was 0.62 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.46 to 0.85; P = 0.003). Total fat intake was not significantly related to the risk of coronary disease (for a 5 percent increase in energy from fat, the relative risk was 1.02; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.97 to 1.07; P = 0.55). We estimated that the replacement of 5 percent of energy from saturated fat with energy from unsaturated fats would reduce risk by 42 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 23 to 56; P<0.001) and that the replacement of 2 percent of energy from trans fat with energy from unhydrogenated, unsaturated fats would reduce risk by 53 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 34 to 67; P<0.001).
Conclusions
Our findings suggest that replacing saturated and trans unsaturated fats with unhydrogenated monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats is more effective in preventing coronary heart disease in women than reducing overall fat intake.
Media in This Article
Figure 2
Estimated Percent Changes in the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease Associated with Isocaloric Substitutions of One Dietary Component for Another.Figure 1
Multivariate Relative Risk of Coronary Heart Disease According to Dietary Intake of Trans Unsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fats.Article Activity
- Article
Low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets have been widely recommended as a way to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease because populations with low intakes of saturated and total fat tend to be at low risk and because saturated fat increases low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels.1 However, low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets also reduce high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels and raise fasting levels of triglycerides.2 Because low levels of HDL cholesterol and high levels of triglycerides independently increase risk, the value of replacing fat in general with carbohydrates has been questioned.3 Replacing saturated fat and trans unsaturated fat with unhydrogenated unsaturated fats has clear beneficial effects on blood lipids2 and thus provides an alternative strategy for reducing the risk of coronary heart disease.
The results of prospective epidemiologic investigations of dietary fat and coronary disease have been inconsistent. A significant positive association between saturated fat and disease was found in two studies,4,5 but not in others.6-11 A significant inverse association between polyunsaturated-fat intake and the risk of disease was found in only one study.9 The interpretation of these findings is complicated by the small size of the studies, inadequate dietary assessment, incomplete adjustment for energy intake, failure to account for trans isomers of unsaturated fats, and lack of control for other types of fat.12 Repeated measurements of dietary components were rarely obtained during follow-up. Moreover, previous research on the relation of dietary fat to the risk of coronary disease has focused primarily on men.4-11,13-15
We previously reported on the relation of dietary intake of trans unsaturated fat to the incidence of coronary disease among women in the Nurses' Health Study over an eight-year period.16 The present analyses extend those findings to a total of 14 years of follow-up to examine the effect of total dietary fat and specific major types of fat and to estimate the effects of substituting carbohydrates or unsaturated fat for saturated fat and trans unsaturated fat.
Methods
The Nurses' Health Study Cohort
The Nurses' Health Study was established in 1976, when 121,700 female nurses who were then 30 to 55 years of age completed a mailed questionnaire on their medical history and lifestyle. Every two years, follow-up questionnaires have been sent to obtain up-to-date information on risk factors and to identify newly diagnosed diseases. In 1980, a 61-item food-frequency questionnaire was included to assess dietary intake of specific fats and other nutrients. In 1984, the dietary questionnaire was expanded to include 116 items. Similar questionnaires were used to obtain current information on diet in 1986 and 1990.
After up to four mailings, 98,462 women returned the 1980 diet questionnaire. We excluded those with 10 or more blank items, those with implausibly high or low scores for total food or energy intake (<500 kcal or >3500 kcal per day), and those with previously diagnosed cancer, angina, myocardial infarction, stroke, or other cardiovascular diseases. Women reporting high serum cholesterol levels or diabetes were excluded from the present analyses because these disorders are associated with coronary heart disease and also could have caused women to change their diets. The final 1980 base-line population consisted of 80,082 women; over 90 percent responded to the subsequent biennial questionnaires and about 80 percent completed the food-frequency questionnaires during follow-up.
The Semiquantitative Food-Frequency Questionnaires
A detailed description of the food-frequency questionnaires and documentation of their reproducibility and validity have been published elsewhere.12 A common unit or portion size for each food (e.g., one egg or one slice of bread) was specified, and participants were asked how often, on average, they had consumed that amount of the item during the previous year. The nine responses ranged from “never or less than once per month” to “six or more times per day.” We also inquired about types of fat or oil used for frying, for baking, and at the table and the type of margarine usually used (stick or tub in 1980 and 1984 and brand and type in 1986 and 1990).
Nutrient intake was computed by multiplying the frequency of consumption of each food by the nutrient content of the specified portion, taking into account the type of fat used in preparation. Values for the amounts of dietary fats and other nutrients in the foods were obtained from the Harvard University Food Composition Database (completed on November 22, 1993), derived from Department of Agriculture sources17 and supplemented with information from manufacturers. Values for total trans isomer contents of foods were based on analyses by Enig et al.18 and Slover et al.19 We included all trans isomers of 18-carbon unsaturated fatty acids. The polyunsaturated fat for which data are reported in this study was the n – 6 polyunsaturated fat linoleic acid (comprising 81 percent of total polyunsaturated fat in this population).
Both the original and the revised questionnaires provided a reasonable measure of total and specific types of fat when compared with four one-week dietary records (correlation coefficients for total and specific types of fat assessed by the dietary records and the food-frequency questionnaires ranged from 0.46 to 0.58 for the 1980 questionnaire and from 0.48 to 0.68 for the longer questionnaire used in 1984, 1986, and 1990).12 The correlation between the calculated dietary intake of trans unsaturated fatty acids and the proportion of trans unsaturated fatty acids in adipose tissue was 0.51.20
Identification of Cases of Coronary Heart Disease
The primary end point for this study was nonfatal myocardial infarction or fatal coronary disease occurring after the return of the 1980 questionnaire but before June 1, 1994. We sought to review the medical records of all women for whom such events were reported. Records were reviewed by study physicians who had no knowledge of the women's risk-factor status as reported on their questionnaires. Myocardial infarction was confirmed if it met the World Health Organization's criteria — that is, symptoms plus either diagnostic electrocardiographic changes or elevated levels of cardiac enzymes.21 Infarctions that required hospital admission and for which confirmatory information was obtained by interview or letter, but for which no medical records were available, were designated as probable (17 percent). We included all confirmed and probable cases in our analyses because the results were the same when we analyzed only the confirmed cases after excluding probable cases.
Deaths were identified from state vital records and the National Death Index or reported by the women's next of kin or the postal system. Follow-up for the deaths was over 98 percent complete. Fatal coronary disease was considered to have occurred if there was fatal myocardial infarction confirmed by hospital records or on autopsy or if coronary disease was listed as the cause of death on the death certificate, if it was the underlying and most plausible cause, and if evidence of previous coronary disease was available.
Statistical Analysis
Person-time for each participant was calculated from the date of return of the 1980 questionnaire to the first end point, death, or June 1, 1994. Women who had reported having cardiovascular disease or cancer on previous questionnaires were excluded from subsequent follow-up; thus, each participant could contribute only one end point, and the cohort at risk included only those who remained free of both a cardiovascular end point and cancer at the beginning of each two-year follow-up interval.
Women were divided into five roughly equal groups according to quintiles for the percentage of energy obtained from each type of fat. Incidence was calculated by dividing the number of events by the person-time of follow-up in each quintile. For each type of fat, the relative risk was computed as the rate in a specific quintile divided by that in the group with the lowest intake, with adjustment for five-year age categories. In multivariate nutrient-density models,12 we simultaneously included energy intake, the percentages of energy derived from protein and specific types of fat, and other potentially confounding variables. We also considered dietary fats as continuous variables. The coefficients from these models can be interpreted as the estimated effect of substituting a specific percentage of energy from fat for the same percentage of energy from carbohydrates. When estimating the effects of substituting one type of fat for another, using the difference in coefficients from the same model, we calculated the percentage reductions in risk and their 95 percent confidence intervals.12 To estimate the effects of substituting unhydrogenated unsaturated fat for saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat, the model included saturated fat, trans unsaturated fat, and the sum of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.
In order to represent long-term dietary patterns of individual subjects as accurately as possible, we used pooled logistic regression22 to model the incidence of coronary disease in relation to the cumulative average fat intake from all available dietary questionnaires up to the start of each two-year follow-up interval. For example, the incidence of coronary disease from 1980 through 1984 was related to the fat intake reported on the 1980 questionnaire, and incidence from 1984 through 1986 was related to the average intake reported on the 1980 and 1984 questionnaires. Because changes in diet after the development of intermediate end points such as angina, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, and hypertension may confound the associations between diet and disease,23 we stopped updating information on diet at the beginning of the interval during which those intermediate end points developed in an individual subject. We also conducted analyses relating incidence to fat intake as reported on the base-line (1980) dietary questionnaire. Nondietary covariates, including age, cigarette smoking, body-mass index (defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters), postmenopausal hormone use, consumption of alcohol, multivitamin use, and use of vitamin E supplements, were updated every two years. Aspirin use was assessed in 1980, 1982, 1984, and 1988. Whether the women engaged in vigorous exercise was assessed in 1980. All reported P values are two-sided.
Results
During 1,057,269 person-years of follow-up from 1980 through 1994, we documented 658 nonfatal infarctions and 281 deaths from coronary heart disease. The dietary intakes of specific types of fat tended to be positively correlated with one another (Table 1Table 1
Mean Intake and Correlation of Specific Types of Dietary Fat at Base Line in 1980.), partly because of shared food sources, but the degree of correlation was high only between saturated and monounsaturated fats. The intake of each type of fat at base line was inversely associated with the consumption of folate, fiber, and alcohol, use of multivitamin and vitamin E supplements, and vigorous exercise (Table 2Table 2
Base-Line Characteristics and Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease According to the Intake of Specific Types of Fat at Base Line in 1980.).In age-adjusted analyses, a higher total fat intake was significantly associated with increased risk (Table 3Table 3
Relative Risk of Coronary Heart Disease According to Quintiles of Specific Types of Dietary Fat, Dietary Cholesterol, and Keys Score.). However, the association virtually disappeared in the multivariate analysis, primarily because of confounding by smoking, but also in part because of adjustment for alcohol use, vigorous exercise, and vitamin E supplementation. Adjustment for body-mass index had no further effect. When total fat was entered into the multivariate model as a continuous variable, the relative risk was 1.02 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.97 to 1.07; P = 0.55) for an increase of 5 percent in energy obtained from total fat, as compared with the equivalent energy obtained from carbohydrates.The intakes of animal fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and trans unsaturated fat and the Keys score (which measures the projected change in the serum cholesterol concentration due to changes in the intakes of specific fats and cholesterol)24 were each associated with an increased risk of disease in age-adjusted analyses (Table 3). After multivariate adjustment, all associations were attenuated, largely because of control for smoking, but the trends remained significant for trans unsaturated fats and the Keys score.
Because major food sources of monounsaturated fat in the United States (beef, dairy fats, and partially hydrogenated vegetable oil) can also have a high saturated, trans unsaturated, or polyunsaturated fat content, we included all four types simultaneously in our multivariate analyses (Table 3). In the adjusted analyses, the overall direction of the association for monounsaturated fat reversed, and there was a slight trend toward decreasing risk from the second to the fifth quintiles with respect to monounsaturated-fat intake. Because an important source of polyunsaturated fat as well as trans unsaturated fat is partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, the associations for both polyunsaturated and trans unsaturated fats in this multivariate analysis became stronger. When these two fats were examined in combination (Figure 1Figure 1
Multivariate Relative Risk of Coronary Heart Disease According to Dietary Intake of Trans Unsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fats.), risk was the lowest among those who had the lowest intake of trans unsaturated fat and the highest intake of polyunsaturated fat (e.g., those who consumed unhydrogenated soybean or corn oil instead of hard margarine) (relative risk, 0.31; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.11 to 0.88; P = 0.01).Next, we treated the percentages of total energy obtained from specific types of fat as continuous variables, with adjustment for the intake of other types (Table 4Table 4
Multivariate Relative Risk of Coronary Heart Disease Associated with Increases in the Percentage of Energy from Specific Types of Fat and Increases in Dietary Cholesterol.). We observed positive associations between the incidence of coronary heart disease and the intake of saturated fat (P = 0.10) and trans unsaturated fat (P<0.001) and inverse associations with monounsaturated fat (P = 0.05) and polyunsaturated fat (P = 0.003). These associations did not differ significantly between current smokers and nonsmokers. The positive association for dietary cholesterol intake was not significant, whether we used the linear values or the square root of cholesterol intake in the analysis. The analyses using only base-line diet yielded qualitatively similar but somewhat weaker results (Table 4). Using the model for updated dietary information in Table 4, we estimated the effects of various isocaloric dietary substitutions on the risk of coronary disease (Figure 2Figure 2Estimated Percent Changes in the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease Associated with Isocaloric Substitutions of One Dietary Component for Another.). Replacing 5 percent of energy from saturated fat with energy from unsaturated fats was associated with a 42 percent lower risk (95 percent confidence interval, 23 to 56 percent; P<0.001), and replacing 2 percent of energy from trans unsaturated fat with energy from unhydrogenated, unsaturated fats was associated with a 53 percent lower risk (95 percent confidence interval, 34 to 67 percent; P<0.001).To examine further the relation of different types of fat to the risk of coronary disease, we included simultaneously in a multivariate model the intake of vegetable fats and that of animal fats, while controlling for the intake of trans unsaturated fat and other potentially confounding variables. The use of more vegetable fat was associated with a reduced risk (relative risk, 0.84 for each increase of 5 percent of energy, 95 percent confidence interval, 0.76 to 0.94; P = 0.001), and animal fat had no significant association with disease (relative risk, 0.98 for each increase of 5 percent of energy; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.92 to 1.03; P = 0.40).
In further analyses, control for diabetes and hypercholesterolemia diagnosed during follow-up in the multivariate model did not materially alter the results. An analysis in which only the most recent dietary data were included yielded qualitatively similar results. The results were also similar when we excluded events that occurred during the first four years of follow-up in order to avoid changes in diet that may have been due to the presence of preclinical conditions and when we excluded participants who failed to complete any one of the dietary questionnaires during follow-up. Because of the strong correlation between the intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fats, we conducted an analysis in which we eliminated monounsaturated fat from the model; the associations for other fats were only slightly weakened.
Discussion
In this large, prospective study of women, we found that a higher dietary intake of saturated fat and trans unsaturated fat was associated with an increased risk of coronary disease, whereas a higher intake of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats was associated with a decreased risk. Because of the opposite effects of different fats on incidence, total fat intake was not significantly related to the risk of coronary disease. The observed relation for saturated fat was much weaker than that predicted by international comparisons,1 suggesting that the international analysis is seriously confounded by other lifestyle factors.3 However, our findings are consistent with the small-to-negligible effect predicted by metabolic studies of the relation of diet and blood lipid levels. For example, Krauss et al.25 have estimated that replacing 4 percent of energy from saturated fat with an equivalent amount of energy from carbohydrates would reduce the rate of coronary disease by about 5 percent. If changes in HDL cholesterol are also considered, however, no effect would be anticipated.11 As predicted by metabolic studies,2 the replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates. In addition, dietary fats may contribute to risk through other mechanisms — for example, by influencing platelet aggregability, changing the threshold for ventricular fibrillation, or affecting sensitivity to insulin.12
We observed a positive association, albeit not a statistically significant one, between dietary cholesterol intake and the risk of coronary disease. Metabolic studies suggest that the effect of dietary cholesterol on serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels in humans is considerably less strong than that of saturated fat.26 A significant positive association between dietary cholesterol and coronary disease was observed in some studies,4,9 but not in others.10,11,15,27 In a pooled analysis28 of four studies,4-6,9 the relative risk of coronary disease was 1.30 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.10 to 1.50) for an increase of 200 mg of dietary cholesterol per 1000 kcal of total energy intake; the 95 percent confidence interval includes our estimate.
The inverse association between the dietary intake of polyunsaturated fat and the incidence of coronary disease is consistent with the results of numerous metabolic studies that showed strong cholesterol-lowering effects of vegetable oils rich in linoleic acid when they were substituted for saturated fat in the diet.1 Also, diets high in polyunsaturated fat have been more effective than low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets in lowering total serum cholesterol as well as the incidence of coronary disease.29
Epidemiologic data on monounsaturated fat are sparse. Two prospective studies found that the risk of coronary disease increased with higher intakes of monounsaturated fat in younger but not in older participants.15,27 However, neither study adjusted for the intake of other types of fat. In our analyses, after adjustment for the intake of other fats, monounsaturated-fat intake was inversely associated with risk. In metabolic studies, replacing carbohydrates with monounsaturated fat raises HDL cholesterol levels without affecting LDL cholesterol2 and may also improve insulin sensitivity.30 In addition, monounsaturated fat is resistant to oxidative modification.31 Ecologic correlations also suggest that the dietary intake of monounsaturated fat is inversely associated with total mortality and mortality due to coronary disease.32
The positive association of coronary heart disease with the intake of trans unsaturated fat is consistent with the results of most previous studies.33 The concentration of trans unsaturated fatty acids in adipose tissue was not significantly associated with the risk of myocardial infarction in the European Antioxidant Myocardial Infarction and Cancer (EURAMIC) study34 or with sudden death from cardiac causes in a small case–control study in the United Kingdom.35 However, the 95 percent confidence intervals for the relative risks in the highest categories of consumption of trans unsaturated fatty acids in both studies were very wide and included our estimate of relative risk. Also in the EURAMIC study, after the exclusion of an outlier area (Spain), the relative risk for the highest versus the lowest category of dietary intake of trans unsaturated fats was close to ours (1.44; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.94 to 2.20).
Trans unsaturated fat from foods may adversely affect the risk of coronary disease by raising LDL cholesterol levels and lowering HDL cholesterol levels,36 increasing Lp(a) lipoprotein levels,36 raising triglyceride levels,36 and interfering with essential-fatty-acid metabolism.37 Hence, it is not surprising that the relative risks in this and other studies are larger than would be predicted solely on the basis of the effect of trans unsaturated fatty acids on blood lipids.33 Imprecise dietary measurement and residual confounding have been suggested as alternative explanations for the observed positive associations.38 However, errors in measuring dietary intake could have accounted for a lack of association, but not for the presence of an association.39 In this study, we obtained repeated measurements of dietary intake in an attempt to reduce errors. As expected, the analyses using repeated measures yielded stronger effects of trans unsaturated fat on the incidence of coronary disease than those that included only the base-line measures.
To account for the effects of potential confounding by lifestyle factors, we adjusted for a multitude of dietary and nondietary risk factors. The multivariate-adjusted relative risk of coronary disease associated with the consumption of trans unsaturated fat was similar to the age-adjusted relative risk, suggesting that confounding by lifestyle factors had only a small effect. On the other hand, the intake of other fats had more important confounding effects, which actually strengthened the association of trans unsaturated fat with coronary disease. In addition, adjustment for intermediate end points such as hypercholesterolemia and diabetes did not materially alter the association, suggesting that confounding by precursors of coronary disease was minimal. Perhaps people with newly diagnosed intermediate end points such as angina might switch from butter to margarine, a change that could increase their intake of trans unsaturated fat and thus artificially produce an elevated risk. However, our data did not support this speculation, since women who had intermediate end points actually tended to reduce their intakes of trans unsaturated fat. For example, from 1980 to 1984, the mean intake of trans unsaturated fat declined 13 percent among women in whom angina developed, as compared with 8 percent among women who did not have angina.
Food-consumption patterns in the United States have shifted considerably in the past decade.40 In our study, total fat intake as a percentage of energy intake declined by about 19 percent from 1980 to 1990. Because we incorporated updated dietary information, our analyses took into account changes over time in dietary habits and food composition. Although the conclusions drawn from the analyses were qualitatively similar whether they were based on base-line or updated dietary information, the associations were somewhat stronger in the updated analyses, indicating the advantage of using the repeated measurements.
Our data provide evidence in support of the hypothesis that a higher dietary intake of saturated fat and trans unsaturated fat is associated with an increased risk of coronary disease, whereas a higher intake of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats is associated with reduced risk. These findings reinforce evidence from metabolic studies that replacing saturated fat and trans unsaturated fat in the diet with unhydrogenated monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats favorably alters the lipid profile, but that reducing overall fat intake has little effect.
Supported by research grants (HL24074, HL34594, CA40356, and DK 46200) and a nutrition training grant (T32DK07703) from the National Institutes of Health.
We are indebted to the participants in the Nurses' Health Study for their continuing outstanding level of cooperation; to Al Wing, Mark Shneyder, Gary Chase, Karen Corsano, Lisa Dunn, Barbara Egan, Lori Ward, and Jill Arnold for their unfailing help; to Alberto Ascherio and Alicja Wolk for helpful comments; and to Frank E. Speizer, principal investigator of the Nurses' Health Study, for his support.
Source Information
From the Departments of Nutrition (F.B.H., M.J.S., E.R., W.C.W.), Epidemiology (M.J.S., J.E.M., E.R., B.A.R., W.C.W.), and Biostatistics (B.A.R.), Harvard School of Public Health; and the Channing Laboratory (M.J.S., J.E.M., E.R., G.A.C., B.A.R., C.H.H., W.C.W.) and the Division of Preventive Medicine (J.E.M., C.H.H.), Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School — all in Boston.
Address reprint requests to Dr. Hu at the Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115.
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- Citing Articles (387)
Citing Articles
1
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Marie K. Fialkowski, Titilayo A. Okoror, Carol J. Boushey. (2012) The Relevancy of Community-Based Methods: Using Diet within Native American and Alaska Native Adult Populations as an Example. Clinical and Translational Scienceno-no
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Dominique Bonnefont-Rousselot. (2012) Micronutriments et risque cardiovasculaire. Nutrition Clinique et Métabolisme
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Marco Cappa, Carla Bizzarri, Anna Petroni, Gianfranca Carta, Lina Cordeddu, Massimiliano Valeriani, Catello Vollono, Loredana Pasquale, Milena Blasevich, Sebastiano Banni. (2011) A mixture of oleic, erucic and conjugated linoleic acids modulates cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory markers and improve somatosensorial evoked potential in X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy female carriers. Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease
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Marcus O.W. Grimm, Tatjana L. Rothhaar, Sven Grösgen, Verena K. Burg, Benjamin Hundsdörfer, Viola J. Haupenthal, Petra Friess, Stefan Kins, Heike S. Grimm, Tobias Hartmann. (2011) Trans fatty acids enhance amyloidogenic processing of the Alzheimer amyloid precursor protein (APP). The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry
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Diana Kachan, John E. Lewis, Evelyn P. Davila, Kristopher L. Arheart, William G. LeBlanc, Lora E. Fleming, Alberto J. Cabán-Martinez, David J. Lee. (2011) Nutrient Intake and Adherence to Dietary Recommendations Among US Workers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine1
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Ida Laake, Jan I. Pedersen, Randi Selmer, Bente Kirkhus, Anja S. Lindman, Aage Tverdal, Marit B. Veierød. (2011) A prospective study of intake of trans-fatty acids from ruminant fat, partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, and marine oils and mortality from CVD. British Journal of Nutrition1-12
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Adam M. Bernstein, Bernard A. Rosner, Walter C. Willett. (2011) Cereal fiber and coronary heart disease: a comparison of modeling approaches for repeated dietary measurements, intermediate outcomes, and long follow-up. European Journal of Epidemiology
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M. M. Ould Mohamedou, A. Tacha, M. El Messal, M. S. El Kebbaj, A. Chraibi, Ahmed Adlouni. (2011) The consumption of argan oil induces a lipid-lowering effect in dyslipidemic patients. Mediterranean Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism
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J A Martikainen, E J O Soini, D E Laaksonen, L Niskanen. (2011) Health economic consequences of reducing salt intake and replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat in the adult Finnish population: estimates based on the FINRISK and FINDIET studies. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65:10, 1148-1155
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Ivančica Delaš. (2011) Benefits and hazards of fat-free diets. Trends in Food Science & Technology 22:10, 576-582
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Anh-Tung Pham, Jeong-Dong Lee, J. Grover Shannon, Kristin D. Bilyeu. (2011) A novel FAD2-1 A allele in a soybean plant introduction offers an alternate means to produce soybean seed oil with 85% oleic acid content. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 123:5, 793-802
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A. Halmemies-Beauchet-Filleau, T. Kokkonen, A.-M. Lampi, V. Toivonen, K.J. Shingfield, A. Vanhatalo. (2011) Effect of plant oils and camelina expeller on milk fatty acid composition in lactating cows fed diets based on red clover silage. Journal of Dairy Science 94:9, 4413-4430
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Shilpa N. Bhupathiraju, Katherine L. Tucker. (2011) Coronary heart disease prevention: Nutrients, foods, and dietary patterns. Clinica Chimica Acta 412:17-18, 1493-1514
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Hans Verhagen, Rikke Andersen, Jean-Michel Antoine, Paul Finglas, Jeljer Hoekstra, Alwine Kardinaal, Hervé Nordmann, Gülden Pekcan, Kristina Pentieva, Tom A. Sanders, Henk van den Berg, Henk van Kranen, Alessandro Chiodini. (2011) Application of the BRAFO tiered approach for benefit–risk assessment to case studies on dietary interventions. Food and Chemical Toxicology
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Else-Marie Bladbjerg, Thomas M. Larsen, Anette Due, Steen Stender, Arne Astrup, Jørgen Jespersen. (2011) Effects on markers of inflammation and endothelial cell function of three ad libitum diets differing in type and amount of fat and carbohydrate: a 6-month randomised study in obese individuals. British Journal of Nutrition 106:01, 123-129
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N T Bendsen, R Christensen, E M Bartels, A Astrup. (2011) Consumption of industrial and ruminant trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65:7, 773-783
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David A. Camfield, Lauren Owen, Andrew B. Scholey, Andrew Pipingas, Con Stough. (2011) Dairy constituents and neurocognitive health in ageing. British Journal of Nutrition 106:02, 159-174
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Alfonso Valenzuela, Bernadette Delplanque, Marcelo Tavella. (2011) Stearic acid: a possible substitute for <i>trans</i> fatty acids from industrial origin. Grasas y Aceites 62:2, 131-138
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D.K. Houston, J. Ding, J.S. Lee, M. Garcia, A.M. Kanaya, F.A. Tylavsky, A.B. Newman, M. Visser, S.B. Kritchevsky. (2011) Dietary fat and cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular disease in older adults: The Health ABC Study. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 21:6, 430-437
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M. Narce, M. Rialland, M. Minville-Walz, S. Bellenger, J. Bellenger. (2011) Les acides gras trans: des acides gras bien singuliers. Médecine des Maladies Métaboliques 5:3, 247-251
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Sébastien Czernichow, Daniel Thomas, Eric Bruckert. (2011) Acides gras oméga-6 et maladies cardiovasculaires. médecine/sciences 27:6-7, 614-618
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Marià Alemany. (2011) Concepto de dieta mediterránea: ¿un grupo de alimentos saludables, una dieta o una panacea publicitaria?. Medicina Clínica 136:13, 594-599
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Dario Gregori, Francesca Foltran, Marco Ghidina, Paola Berchialla. (2011) Understanding the influence of the snack definition on the association between snacking and obesity: a review. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 62:3, 270-275
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Paula R Trumbo, Tomoko Shimakawa. (2011) Tolerable upper intake levels for trans fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol. Nutrition Reviews 69:5, 270-278
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Amar U. Kishan, Bobeck S. Modjtahedi, Elisabeth N. Martins, Sara P. Modjtahedi, Lawrence S. Morse. (2011) Lipids and Age-related Macular Degeneration. Survey of Ophthalmology 56:3, 195-213
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P. Pierucci, G. Misciagna, M.T. Ventura, R. Inguaggiato, A.M. Cisternino, V.M.B. Guerra, P. Suppressa, F. Resta, C. Sabbà. (2011) Diet and myocardial infarction: A nested case-control study in a cohort of elderly subjects in a Mediterranean area of southern Italy. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases
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Adam M. Bernstein, Walter C. Willett. (2011) Red Meat Intake and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease. Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports 5:2, 145-148
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Ross L. Prentice, Ying Huang, Lewis H. Kuller, Lesley F. Tinker, Linda Van Horn, Marcia L. Stefanick, Gloria Sarto, Judith Ockene, Karen C. Johnson. (2011) Biomarker-calibrated Energy and Protein Consumption and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Among Postmenopausal Women. Epidemiology 22:2, 170-179
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Leah G. Gillingham, Sydney Harris-Janz, Peter J. H. Jones. (2011) Dietary Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Are Protective Against Metabolic Syndrome and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors. Lipids 46:3, 209-228
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D. R. Pendergast, K. Meksawan, A. Limprasertkul, N. M. Fisher. (2011) Influence of exercise on nutritional requirements. European Journal of Applied Physiology 111:3, 379-390
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Eric Bruckert, David Rosenbaum. (2011) Lowering LDL-cholesterol through diet: potential role in the statin era. Current Opinion in Lipidology 22:1, 43-48
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Marianne U Jakobsen, Kim Overvad. (2011) Macronutrient advice for ischemic heart disease prevention. Current Opinion in Lipidology 22:1, 33-36
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Carolyn G Scrafford, Nga L Tran, Leila M Barraj, Pamela J Mink. (2011) Egg consumption and CHD and stroke mortality: a prospective study of US adults. Public Health Nutrition 14:02, 261-270
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Jeanne P. Goldberg, Sarah A. Sliwa. (2011) Communicating actionable nutrition messages: challenges and opportunities. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 70:01, 26-37
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Maria Marino, Roberta Masella, Pamela Bulzomi, Ilaria Campesi, Walter Malorni, Flavia Franconi. (2011) Nutrition and human health from a sex–gender perspective. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 32:1, 1-70
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Barry Sears, Camillo Ricordi. (2011) Anti-Inflammatory Nutrition as a Pharmacological Approach to Treat Obesity. Journal of Obesity 2011, 1-14
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D. I. Givens, K. E. Kliem. 2011. Chronic disease risk associated with different dietary saturated fatty acids. , 98-111.
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P. Khosla, K. Sundram. 2011. Nutritional characteristics of palm oil. , 112-128.
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Kuo-Liong Chien, Chia-Lun Chao, Chen-Hong Kuo, Hung-Ju Lin, Pi-Hua Liu, Pei-Rony Chen, Hsiu-Ching Hsu, Bai-Chin Lee, Yuan-Teh Lee, Ming-Fong Chen. (2011) Plasma fatty acids and the risk of metabolic syndrome in ethnic Chinese adults in Taiwan. Lipids in Health and Disease 10:1, 33
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Peter Elwood. (2011) My health - whose responsibility? Healthy behaviours and prophylactic drugs. Quality in Ageing and Older Adults 12:1, 50-55
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Lindsey R. Boone, Patricia A. Brooks, Melissa I. Niesen, Gene C. Ness. (2011) Mechanism of Resistance to Dietary Cholesterol. Journal of Lipids 2011, 1-9
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Mauro Takahashi, Erick de Oliveira, Ana Lygia de Carvalho, Lidiane de Souza Dantas, Franz Burini, Kátia Portero-McLellan, Roberto Burini. (2011) Metabolic syndrome and dietary components are associated with coronary artery disease risk score in free-living adults: a cross-sectional study. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome 3:1, 7
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N T Bendsen, E Chabanova, H S Thomsen, T M Larsen, J W Newman, S Stender, J Dyerberg, S B Haugaard, A Astrup. (2011) Effect of trans fatty acid intake on abdominal and liver fat deposition and blood lipids: a randomized trial in overweight postmenopausal women. Nutrition and Diabetes 1:1, e4
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Hye Won Yom. (2011) Clinical Nutrition Therapy of Metabolic Syndrome in Adolescents. Korean Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 14:4, 350
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Alexandra Schmid. (2010) The Role of Meat Fat in the Human Diet. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 51:1, 50-66
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Rachel Griffith, Martin O'Connell. (2010) Public Policy towards Food Consumption*. Fiscal Studies 31:4, 481-507
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Ram Chandra Reddy Jala, Zheng Guo, Thomas Bjerring, Xuebing Xu. (2010) Interference effects from coexisting fatty acids on elaidic acid separation by fractionating crystallization: A model study. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 112:12, 1375-1383
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Else-Marie Bladbjerg, Thomas M. Larsen, Anette Due, Jørgen Jespersen, Steen Stender, Arne Astrup. (2010) Long-term effects on haemostatic variables of three ad libitum diets differing in type and amount of fat and carbohydrate: a 6-month randomised study in obese individuals. British Journal of Nutrition 104:12, 1824-1830
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Miguel A. Rubio. (2010) Dieta y prevención de enfermedad coronaria. Clínica e Investigación en Arteriosclerosis 22, 58-69
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Patty W. Siri-Tarino, Qi Sun, Frank B. Hu, Ronald M. Krauss. (2010) Saturated Fatty Acids and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: Modulation by Replacement Nutrients. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 12:6, 384-390
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Chiara Degirolamo, Lawrence L. Rudel. (2010) Dietary Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Appear Not to Provide Cardioprotection. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 12:6, 391-396
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J. David Spence, David JA Jenkins, Jean Davignon. (2010) Dietary cholesterol and egg yolks: Not for patients at risk of vascular disease. Canadian Journal of Cardiology 26:9, e336-e339
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N. D. Soni, Urmila Choudhary, Praveen Sharma, Amitabh Dube. (2010) To Study the Effect of Diet Supplementation with Coconut Oil, Mustard Oil and Sunflower Oil on Blood Lipids in Rabbit. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry 25:4, 441-442
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Xiaohui Cui, Bernard Rosner, Walter C. Willett, Susan E. Hankinson. (2010) Dietary Fat, Fiber, and Carbohydrate Intake and Endogenous Hormone Levels in Premenopausal Women. Hormones and Cancer 1:5, 265-276
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Jeung Hee Lee, Prakash Adhikari, Seong-Ai Kim, Taehyung Yoon, In-Hwan Kim, Ki-Teak Lee. (2010) Trans Fatty Acids Content and Fatty Acid Profiles in the Selected Food Products from Korea between 2005 and 2008. Journal of Food Science 75:7, C647-C652
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Sébastien Czernichow, Daniel Thomas, Eric Bruckert. (2010) n-6 Fatty acids and cardiovascular health: a review of the evidence for dietary intake recommendations. British Journal of Nutrition 104:06, 788-796
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Kyongshin Cho, Lawrence Mabasa, Andrea W. Fowler, Dana M. Walsh, Chung S. Park. (2010) Canola Oil Inhibits Breast Cancer Cell Growth in Cultures and In Vivo and Acts Synergistically with Chemotherapeutic Drugs. Lipids 45:9, 777-784
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Hyeun-Kyeung Kim, Yong-Chul Kim, Sun-Tae Kim, Beung-Gu Son, Yong-Whan Choi, Jum-Soon Kang, Young-Hoon Park, Young-Son Cho, In-Soo Choi. (2010) Analysis of Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) for Seed Size and Fatty Acid Composition Using Recombinant Inbred Lines in Soybean. Journal of Life Science 20:8, 1186-1192
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Nancy E. Lange, Sheryl L. Rifas-Shiman, Carlos A. Camargo, Diane R. Gold, Matthew W. Gillman, Augusto A. Litonjua. (2010) Maternal dietary pattern during pregnancy is not associated with recurrent wheeze in children. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 126:2, 250-255.e4
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ANTHONY ASH, ANDREW WILBEY. (2010) The nutritional significance of cheese in the UK diet. International Journal of Dairy Technology 63:3, 305-319
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Lina Badimon, Gemma Vilahur, Teresa Padro. (2010) Nutraceuticals and Atherosclerosis: Human Trials. Cardiovascular Therapeutics 28:4, 202-215
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Yanhong Yang, Ying Jiang, Yutong Wang, Wei An. (2010) Suppression of ABCA1 by unsaturated fatty acids leads to lipid accumulation in HepG2 cells. Biochimie 92:8, 958-963
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Georges AbouRjaili, Norbert Shtaynberg, Robert Wetz, Thomas Costantino, George S. Abela. (2010) Current concepts in triglyceride metabolism, pathophysiology, and treatment. Metabolism 59:8, 1210-1220
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Melina Oliveira de Souza, Maísa Silva, Marcelo Eustáquio Silva, Riva de Paula Oliveira, Maria Lucia Pedrosa. (2010) Diet supplementation with acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) pulp improves biomarkers of oxidative stress and the serum lipid profile in rats. Nutrition 26:7-8, 804-810
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Jeoung Mae Son, Ki-Teak Lee, Casimir C Akoh, Mee Ree Kim, Mi Jung Kim, Jeung Hee Lee. (2010) Optimisation of tripalmitin-rich fractionation from palm stearin by response surface methodology. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 90:9, 1520-1526
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C Malpuech-Brugère, J Mouriot, C Boue-Vaysse, N Combe, J-L Peyraud, P LeRuyet, G Chesneau, B Morio, J-M Chardigny. (2010) Differential impact of milk fatty acid profiles on cardiovascular risk biomarkers in healthy men and women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64:7, 752-759
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Inge Huybrechts, Carine Vereecken, Dirk De Bacquer, Stefanie Vandevijvere, Herman Van Oyen, Lea Maes, Erika Vanhauwaert, Liesbeth Temme, Guy De Backer, Stefaan De Henauw. (2010) Reproducibility and validity of a diet quality index for children assessed using a FFQ. British Journal of Nutrition 104:01, 135-144
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Vincenzo Savica, Guido Bellinghieri, Joel D. Kopple. (2010) The Effect of Nutrition on Blood Pressure. Annual Review of Nutrition 30:1, 365-401
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Rozenn N. Lemaitre, Irena B. King, Nona Sotoodehnia, Robert H. Knopp, Dariush Mozaffarian, Barbara McKnight, Thomas D. Rea, Kenneth Rice, Yechiel Friedlander, Thomas S. Lumley, Trivellore E. Raghunathan, Michael K. Copass, David S. Siscovick. (2010) Endogenous red blood cell membrane fatty acids and sudden cardiac arrest. Metabolism 59:7, 1029-1034
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R Dewey, P Zhang. 2010. Candidate Gene Analysis of Mutant Soybean Germplasm. , 187-197.
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Paul Nestel. (2010) Linoleic acid reassessed. Current Opinion in Lipidology 21:3, 253-255
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Kim Cheng, Kenneth Ho, Rebecca Stokes, Christopher Scott, Sue Mei Lau, Wayne J. Hawthorne, Philip J. O’Connell, Thomas Loudovaris, Thomas W. Kay, Rohit N. Kulkarni, Terumasa Okada, Xiaohui L. Wang, Sun Hee Yim, Yatrik Shah, Shane T. Grey, Andrew V. Biankin, James G. Kench, D. Ross Laybutt, Frank J. Gonzalez, C. Ronald Kahn, Jenny E. Gunton. (2010) Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α regulates β cell function in mouse and human islets. Journal of Clinical Investigation 120:6, 2171-2183
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John Stanley. (2010) Dietary cholesterol, blood cholesterol and cardiovascular disease. Lipid Technology 22:5, 110-112
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Valentina Remig, Barry Franklin, Simeon Margolis, Georgia Kostas, Theresa Nece, James C. Street. (2010) Trans Fats in America: A Review of Their Use, Consumption, Health Implications, and Regulation. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 110:4, 585-592
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Prakash Adhikari, Feng Yu, Jeung-Hee Lee, Hye Kyung Park, Jong Wook Kim, Eun Ju Lee, Ki-Teak Lee. (2010) Comparative study of trans fatty acid content in 2005 and 2008 processed foods from Korean market. Food Science and Biotechnology 19:2, 335-341
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Kate S. Collison, Nadine J. Makhoul, Angela Inglis, Mohammed Al-Johi, Marya Zia Zaidi, Zakia Maqbool, Soad M. Saleh, Razan Bakheet, Rhea Mondreal, Rana Al-Rabiah, Mohammed Shoukri, Norton W. Milgram, Futwan A. Al-Mohanna. (2010) Dietary trans-fat combined with monosodium glutamate induces dyslipidemia and impairs spatial memory. Physiology & Behavior 99:3, 334-342
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John Stanley. (2010) How good is the evidence for the lipid hypothesis?. Lipid Technology 22:2, 39-41
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Nga Tran, Leila Barraj. (2010) Contribution of specific dietary factors to CHD in US females. Public Health Nutrition 13:02, 154
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Patrick Even, François Mariotti, Dominique Hermier. (2010) Postprandial effects of a lipid-rich meal in the rat are modulated by the degree of unsaturation of 18C fatty acids. Metabolism 59:2, 231-240
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Swapnil N. Rajpathak, Vikas Aggarwal, Frank B. Hu. (2010) Multifactorial Intervention to Reduce Cardiovascular Events in Type 2 Diabetes. Current Diabetes Reports 10:1, 16-23
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Yoon Jung Yang, Mi Kyung Kim, Se Hee Hwang, Younjhin Ahn, Jae Eun Shim, Dong Hyun Kim. (2010) Relative validities of 3-day food records and the food frequency questionnaire. Nutrition Research and Practice 4:2, 142
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L. D. Kwape, M. A. Crilly, J. Kyle, N. Sarwar, L. F. Masson, G. McNeill. (2010) Is saturated fat intake associated with CVD risk, arterial stiffness or disease severity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis?. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 69:OCE1,
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Weiliang Qiu, Bernard Rosner. (2010) Measurement error correction for the cumulative average model in the survival analysis of nutritional data: application to Nurses’ Health Study. Lifetime Data Analysis 16:1, 136-153
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Sonya Ellis, N. Theresa Glanville. (2010) Trans <i>Fat Information on Food Labels</i> Consumer Use and Interpretation. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 71:1, 6-10
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Marie K. Fialkowski, Megan A. McCrory, Sparkle M. Roberts, J. Kathleen Tracy, Lynn M. Grattan, Carol J. Boushey. (2010) Evaluation of Dietary Assessment Tools Used to Assess the Diet of Adults Participating in the Communities Advancing the Studies of Tribal Nations Across the Lifespan Cohort. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 110:1, 65-73
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Luc Djoussé, J. Michael Gaziano. (2009) Dietary cholesterol and coronary artery disease: A systematic review. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 11:6, 418-422
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Sonia Vega-López, Nirupa R. Matthan, Lynne M. Ausman, Masumi Ai, Seiko Otokozawa, Ernst J. Schaefer, Alice H. Lichtenstein. (2009) Substitution of vegetable oil for a partially-hydrogenated fat favorably alters cardiovascular disease risk factors in moderately hypercholesterolemic postmenopausal women. Atherosclerosis 207:1, 208-212
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Jennifer A. Nettleton, Cheryl L. Rock, Youfa Wang, Nancy S. Jenny, David R. Jacobs. (2009) Associations between dietary macronutrient intake and plasma lipids demonstrate criterion performance of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) food-frequency questionnaire. British Journal of Nutrition 102:08, 1220
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Hope R. Ferdowsian, Neal D. Barnard. (2009) Effects of Plant-Based Diets on Plasma Lipids. The American Journal of Cardiology 104:7, 947-956
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Doriane Richard, Pedro Bausero, Charlotte Schneider, Francesco Visioli. (2009) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 66:20, 3277-3288
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C Palacios, KJ Joshipura, WC Willett. (2009) Nutrition and health: guidelines for dental practitioners. Oral Diseases 15:6, 369-381
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R. A. Mekary, W. C. Willett, F. B. Hu, E. L. Ding. (2009) Isotemporal Substitution Paradigm for Physical Activity Epidemiology and Weight Change. American Journal of Epidemiology 170:4, 519-527
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F. B. Luciano. (2009) The impacts of lean red meat consumption on human health: a review. CyTA - Journal of Food 7:2, 143-151
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P. Scully, P. Tighe, G. A. Gilmore, J. M. W. Wallace, J. J. Strain, H. McNulty, M. Ward, W. S. Gilmore. (2009) The relationship between gender and age with monocyte tissue factor expression. Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis 28:2, 156-165
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Christopher E. Ramsden, Keturah R. Faurot, Pedro Carrera-Bastos, Loren Cordain, Michel Lorgeril, Laurence S. Sperling. (2009) Dietary fat quality and coronary heart disease prevention: A unified theory based on evolutionary, historical, global, and modern perspectives. Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine 11:4, 289-301
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Eva K. Richter, Karem Albash Shawish, Martin R.L. Scheeder, Paolo C. Colombani. (2009) Trans fatty acid content of selected Swiss foods: The TransSwissPilot study. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 22:5, 479-484
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Robert Clarke, Martin Shipley, Jane Armitage, Rory Collins, William Harris. (2009) Plasma phospholipid fatty acids and CHD in older men: Whitehall study of London civil servants. British Journal of Nutrition 102:02, 279
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Frank B. Hu. (2009) Diet and lifestyle influences on risk of coronary heart disease. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 11:4, 257-263
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Sheryl L. Rifas-Shiman, Janet W. Rich-Edwards, Ken P. Kleinman, Emily Oken, Matthew W. Gillman. (2009) Dietary Quality during Pregnancy Varies by Maternal Characteristics in Project Viva: A US Cohort. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109:6, 1004-1011
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J. I. Harland. (2009) An assessment of the economic and heart health benefits of replacing saturated fat in the diet with monounsaturates in the form of rapeseed (canola) oil. Nutrition Bulletin 34:2, 174-184
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Peter W. Parodi. (2009) Has the association between saturated fatty acids, serum cholesterol and coronary heart disease been over emphasized?. International Dairy Journal 19:6-7, 345-361
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Wendy L. Hall. (2009) Dietary saturated and unsaturated fats as determinants of blood pressure and vascular function. Nutrition Research Reviews 22:01, 18
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J. Bruce German, Robert A. Gibson, Ronald M. Krauss, Paul Nestel, Benoît Lamarche, Wija A. Staveren, Jan M. Steijns, Lisette C. P. G. M. Groot, Adam L. Lock, Frédéric Destaillats. (2009) A reappraisal of the impact of dairy foods and milk fat on cardiovascular disease risk. European Journal of Nutrition 48:4, 191-203
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Ana Paula Gonçalves Dinis, Ruy Garcia Marques, Fernanda Correia Simões, Cristina Fajardo Diestel, Carlos Eduardo Rodrigues Caetano, Dióscuro José Ferreira Secchin, José Firmino Nogueira Neto, Margareth Crisóstomo Portela. (2009) Plasma Lipid Levels of Rats Fed a Diet Containing Pork Fat as a Source of Lipids after Splenic Surgery. Lipids 44:6, 537-543
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Tiny Hoekstra, Joline W.J. Beulens, Yvonne T. van der Schouw. (2009) Cardiovascular disease prevention in women: Impact of dietary interventions. Maturitas 63:1, 20-27
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W. L. Zhang, E. Lopez-Garcia, T. Y. Li, F. B. Hu, R. M. Dam. (2009) Coffee consumption and risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality among women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 52:5, 810-817
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Karin B. Michels, Walter C. Willett. (2009) The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial: a post-mortem. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 114:1, 1-6
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P. Mason, S. C. Porter, S. E. Berry, P. Stillman, C. Steele, A. Kirby, B. A. Griffin, A. M. Minihane. (2009) Saturated fatty acid consumption: outlining the scale of the problem and assessing the solutions. Nutrition Bulletin 34:1, 74-84
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Leila Barraj, Nga Tran, Pamela Mink. (2009) A Comparison of Egg Consumption with Other Modifiable Coronary Heart Disease Lifestyle Risk Factors: A Relative Risk Apportionment Study. Risk Analysis 29:3, 401-415
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Zhiliang Huang, Baowu Wang, Ralphenia D. Pace, Seokjoo Yoon. (2009) Trans fat intake lowers total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels without changing insulin sensitivity index in Wistar rats. Nutrition Research 29:3, 206-212
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A. Phivilay, C. Julien, C. Tremblay, L. Berthiaume, P. Julien, Y. Giguère, F. Calon. (2009) High dietary consumption of trans fatty acids decreases brain docosahexaenoic acid but does not alter amyloid-β and tau pathologies in the 3xTg-AD model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 159:1, 296-307
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