Original Article

A Case–Control Study of HIV Seroconversion in Health Care Workers after Percutaneous Exposure

Denise M. Cardo, M.D., David H. Culver, Ph.D., Carol A. Ciesielski, M.D., Pamela U. Srivastava, M.S., Ruthanne Marcus, M.P.H., Dominique Abiteboul, M.D., Julia Heptonstall, M.R.C.Path., Giuseppe Ippolito, M.D., Florence Lot, M.D., Penny S. McKibben, David M. Bell, M.D., and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Needlestick Surveillance Group

N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1485-1490November 20, 1997DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199711203372101

Abstract

Background

The average risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood is 0.3 percent, but the factors that influence this risk are not well understood.

Full Text of Background...

Methods

We conducted a case–control study of health care workers with occupational, percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood. The case patients were those who became seropositive after exposure to HIV, as reported by national surveillance systems in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The controls were health care workers in a prospective surveillance project who were exposed to HIV but did not seroconvert.

Full Text of Methods...

Results

Logistic-regression analysis based on 33 case patients and 665 controls showed that significant risk factors for seroconversion were deep injury (odds ratio = 15; 95 percent confidence interval, 6.0 to 41), injury with a device that was visibly contaminated with the source patient's blood (odds ratio = 6.2; 95 percent confidence interval, 2.2 to 21), a procedure involving a needle placed in the source patient's artery or vein (odds ratio = 4.3; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.7 to 12), and exposure to a source patient who died of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome within two months afterward (odds ratio = 5.6; 95 percent confidence interval, 2.0 to 16). The case patients were significantly less likely than the controls to have taken zidovudine after the exposure (odds ratio = 0.19; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.06 to 0.52).

Full Text of Results...

Conclusions

The risk of HIV infection after percutaneous exposure increases with a larger volume of blood and, probably, a higher titer of HIV in the source patient's blood. Postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine appears to be protective.

Full Text of Discussion...

Read the Full Article...

Media in This Article

Table 1Characteristics of Injuries Sustained by Case Patients and Controls.

Table 2Logistic-Regression Analysis of Risk Factors for HIV Transmission after Percutaneous Exposure to HIV-Infected Blood.

Article Activity

360 articles have cited this article

Article

The average risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to a health care worker after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood has been estimated as 0.3 percent.1-4 However, the factors that influence this risk have not been determined, and the efficacy of postexposure prophylaxis with antiretroviral drugs has not been clinically evaluated. If postexposure prophylaxis is effective, it would offer an entirely new strategy for preventing HIV transmission in nonoccupational settings as a supplement to the preferred strategy of preventing exposure. Study of occupational exposure to HIV presents an important opportunity to evaluate postexposure prophylaxis, because the source, time, and many details of the exposure are known. A nationwide, prospective, placebo-controlled trial of prophylaxis with zidovudine after percutaneous exposure to HIV among health care workers was discontinued when only 84 health care workers enrolled after one year, since many thousands would be needed to assess reduction of a 0.3 percent risk of transmission.1,5 Nevertheless, occupational exposure to HIV and infection continue to occur, and there is a compelling public health need for data on the efficacy of postexposure prophylaxis.

We conducted a case–control study to identify risk factors for the transmission of HIV to a health care worker after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood.

Methods

Definitions

Case patients were health care workers who had a documented occupational, percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood by a needle stick or a cut with a sharp object, HIV seroconversion that was temporally associated with the exposure, and no other reported concurrent exposure to HIV. Control subjects were health care workers with a documented occupational, percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood who were HIV seronegative at the time of exposure and at least six months later.

Identification of Case Patients and Controls

Case patients were identified through reports to national surveillance systems for occupationally acquired HIV infection that were operated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in cooperation with state and local health departments in the United States; the Réseau National de Santé Publique in France; the Centro di Riferimento AIDS in Italy; and the Public Health Laboratory Service Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre in the United Kingdom. Controls were identified through reports to a voluntary CDC surveillance project, Prospective Evaluation of Health Care Workers Exposed to Blood of Patients Infected with HIV, also called the CDC Needlestick Study. This project has enrolled health care workers from approximately 300 health care institutions in the United States since 1983.1

All case patients reported in the United States by August 1994 who were exposed after 1987 and all controls exposed after 1987 whose six-month follow-up evaluation was completed as of August 1994 were studied. Case patients and controls reported in the United States before 1988 were excluded from the analysis because information on many variables of interest was not routinely collected before 1988 and because postexposure prophylaxis was rare.1 For the same reason, the analysis was limited to all case patients reported in France and Italy after 1989 and in the United Kingdom after 1987. Information on two case patients from Italy had been collected but was not available for analysis in an earlier brief report.6

Case patients were normally reported to public health authorities after seroconversion. Most variables of interest were obtained by reviewing incident reports that had been completed at the time of exposure and other records in which documentation was considered to be objective (e.g., medical records). Controls were reported to the CDC at the time of exposure; information was collected with a standardized protocol.1 Information regarding the date of death of source patients was retrospectively collected for case patients and controls.

Data Collection

For each case patient and control, personal information was collected as well as information on the source patient and the injury. Information about the health care worker included age, sex, occupation, work location, whether antiretroviral agents were offered after exposure, and if taken, the interval between exposure and the first dose and the regimen followed. Information about the source patient included the stage of HIV disease (the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [AIDS], symptomatic, or asymptomatic) at the time of the health care worker's exposure, use of antiretroviral drugs at that time, and whether the source patient died of AIDS within two months after the health care worker's exposure (referred to as terminal illness). Information about the injury included the type of device involved, the gauge of hollow-bore needle, the type of procedure performed, the urgency of the procedure, the use of gloves, the interval between the use of the device and injury, the presence or absence of visible blood from the source patient on the device, and the severity of injury. Procedures involving a needle placed in the source patient's artery or vein (e.g., phlebotomy, insertion of an intravenous catheter, and arterial-blood gas collection) were distinguished from other procedures (e.g., intramuscular injection and injection into an intravenous catheter). The severity of injury was defined as superficial (surface scratch and the absence of bleeding), moderate (penetration of the skin and bleeding), or deep (deep puncture or wound with or without bleeding).

Statistical Analysis

Univariate and stratified multivariate analyses were performed with Fisher's exact test and Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel techniques. All variables that were either statistically significant in univariate analyses or potentially important with respect to prevention (e.g., the use of gloves, whether zidovudine was offered after exposure, and whether zidovudine was taken) were included in logistic-regression analyses.

When a dichotomous variable had data missing among both case patients and controls, health care workers with missing data were not excluded from the logistic-regression analyses; instead, “missing” was considered a third response category for that variable. A missing-value indicator variable (assigned a value of 1 if missing and a value of zero otherwise) was created and forced into the model, and the missing value was recorded as zero. Thus, we maximized the number of health care workers in the analysis and assessed the potential confounding influence of missing values on the estimated effects of the other risk factors.

Data were analyzed with the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.). All P values are two-tailed.

Results

The study population included 33 case patients (23 from the United States, 5 from France, 3 from the United Kingdom, and 2 from Italy) and 679 controls (from 190 of the U.S. health care facilities involved in the CDC Needlestick Study). There was no significant difference between case patients and controls with respect to the year of exposure (P = 0.84). Of the injuries sustained by the case patients, 30 (91 percent) were needle sticks (all with hollow-bore needles) and 3 (9 percent) involved other sharp objects. Of the injuries sustained by controls, 620 (91 percent) were needle sticks (594 with hollow-bore needles and 26 with suture needles) and 59 (9 percent) involved other sharp objects.

Univariate analysis revealed that HIV transmission was significantly associated with injuries with a large-diameter needle (a gauge of less than 18), deep injury, visible blood on the device, procedures involving a needle placed in the source patient's vein or artery, emergency procedures, and terminal illness in the source patient (Table 1Table 1Characteristics of Injuries Sustained by Case Patients and Controls.). No significant difference in risk was found between exposure involving a hollow-bore needle and that involving a suture needle. By univariate analysis, there was no significant difference between case patients and controls in the use of zidovudine after exposure (9 of 33 case patients, or 27 percent, vs. 247 of 679 controls, or 36 percent; odds ratio = 0.7; P = 0.35). There was no evidence that case patients were more or less likely than controls to be offered zidovudine. Twenty-five case patients (76 percent) and 500 controls (74 percent) were exposed during 1990 to 1994, when postexposure use of zidovudine had become more common.1 Among the 23 of these 25 case patients for whom information was available, 19 (83 percent) had been offered the drug (11 of 13 U.S. case patients and 8 of 10 European case patients). From September 1990 through August 1994, 268 of 338 controls (79 percent) had been offered zidovudine (P = 1.0). Among health care workers who were known to have been offered zidovudine, 9 case patients (47 percent) and 172 controls (64 percent) took the drug (P = 0.15).

Logistic-Regression Model

The final logistic-regression model, which included 33 case patients and 665 controls (14 controls were eliminated because of missing values), identified several risk factors that were associated with HIV transmission: deep injury, injury with a device that was visibly contaminated with the source patient's blood, procedures involving a needle placed in the source patient's vein or artery, and terminal illness in the source patient (Table 2Table 2Logistic-Regression Analysis of Risk Factors for HIV Transmission after Percutaneous Exposure to HIV-Infected Blood.). After control for these factors, no differences were detected in the rates at which case patients and controls were offered postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine (odds ratio = 0.92, P = 0.90). However, case patients were significantly less likely to have taken zidovudine than controls (odds ratio = 0.19, P = 0.003). This is a classic example of confounding, since the adjusted odds ratio differed from the crude odds ratio (0.7) because zidovudine use was more likely among both case patients and controls after exposure characterized by one or more of the four risk factors in the model. These risk factors were more prevalent among case patients than among controls, indicating that the case patients had more serious exposure than the controls; hence, the crude odds ratio for zidovudine use was severely confounded.

In a separate analysis performed after we excluded case patients and controls with missing values for one or more of the risk factors and stratified subjects according to the number of risk factors present, the adjusted odds ratio for zidovudine use (0.21) obtained by Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel techniques was similar to the adjusted odds ratio calculated with the logistic-regression model (0.19) (Table 3Table 3Postexposure Use of Zidovudine among Case Patients and Controls, According to the Number of Risk Factors Present.). A significant (P<0.05) protective effect of zidovudine use was also observed after control for the influence of any two of the four risk factors.

No significant interactions were found among the risk factors in the model or between the risk factors and the missing-value indicators forced into the model (for visible blood on the device and terminal illness in the source patient). When all health care workers with missing values were excluded, all factors remained significant, with similar adjusted odds ratios but slightly larger confidence intervals. All factors in the model also remained significant when the analysis was restricted to case patients from the United States (Table 2).

Postexposure Zidovudine Regimens

Among the health care workers who took zidovudine, 67 percent of controls and 89 percent of case patients had their first dose within four hours after exposure (P = 0.28). Sixty-six percent of controls and 44 percent of case patients continued postexposure prophylaxis for at least four weeks (P = 0.28); 78 percent of controls and 75 percent of case patients took at least 1000 mg of zidovudine per day (P = 1.0).

The degree of susceptibility of HIV strains from most source patients to zidovudine is unknown. Information about antiretroviral drugs taken by source patients at the time of exposure was available for 7 case patients and 124 controls who took zidovudine. In the case of 5 (71 percent) of the case patients and 87 (70 percent) of the controls, the source patients were receiving zidovudine at the time of the health care workers' exposure.

Discussion

In this study, the risk of HIV transmission to a health care worker after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood appeared to be influenced by several factors. Increased risk was associated with three factors that were probably indirect measures of the quantity of blood transferred in the exposure: deep injury, injury with a device that was visibly contaminated with the source patient's blood, and a procedure that involved a needle placed in the source patient's vein or artery, which means that the needle probably contained undiluted blood. When the logistic-regression analysis was restricted to needle sticks with hollow-bore needles, large-diameter needles were weakly associated with an increased risk of seroconversion (P = 0.08), supporting the premise that the volume of blood involved is important. The risk of HIV transmission was also increased if a health care worker was exposed to blood from a source patient in the terminal stage of AIDS. This association is probably due to the higher titer of HIV in the blood of patients late in the course of AIDS, but it could possibly be due to other factors, such as syncytium-inducing HIV strains in these patients.7,8

After controlling for other factors associated with the risk of HIV transmission, our model indicated that the odds of HIV infection among health care workers who took zidovudine prophylactically after exposure were reduced by approximately 81 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 48 to 94 percent). Because it is difficult to control for known and unknown factors that contribute to HIV transmission, a retrospective case–control study is not the optimal design for assessing the efficacy of zidovudine; however, a prospective, placebo-controlled trial has not been possible.1,5

The apparent efficacy of postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine in this study is consistent with data from other sources. In a prospective trial, administration of zidovudine to HIV-infected pregnant women and their infants reduced perinatal transmission by 67 percent9; a direct prophylactic effect on the fetus or infant was suggested, since only a small portion of the protective effect of zidovudine was due to a reduction of the HIV titer in maternal blood.10 Studies of antiretroviral chemoprophylaxis in animals have yielded mixed results, and their applicability to humans has been difficult to assess, but prophylaxis has prevented or ameliorated infection in several studies.11,12

Zidovudine is beneficial in the treatment of acute HIV infection in humans,13 and its efficacy for postexposure prophylaxis would be consistent with a new understanding of HIV pathogenesis in which the virus is cleared by the human immune system while the immune system is still intact.14 At least 13 instances of failure of postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine in health care workers have been documented worldwide, indicating that any protection provided is not absolute.15-17

This study has several potential limitations, primarily because it was a retrospective review of surveillance data obtained from different sources and the number of case patients is relatively small. Reporting bias may have resulted if health care workers preferentially reported exposure that they believed was more likely to result in HIV transmission or for which they wanted zidovudine treatment (or both). This tendency would presumably be similar, however, among case patients and controls. Ascertainment bias may have affected some data, particularly subjective variables such as the severity of injury, because information for controls was obtained prospectively soon after exposure, whereas for some case patients, information was obtained after HIV seroconversion. However, for most variables there was objective documentation from incident reports and medical records.

We could not rule out, but did not identify, biases related to the use of zidovudine. If controls were more likely to have been offered zidovudine or more strongly encouraged to take it, the use of the drug might have been statistically associated with the absence of HIV seroconversion, even if the drug was not truly protective. Controls did not appear more likely than case patients to have been offered zidovudine, but it was impossible to assess whether controls may have been more strongly encouraged to take the drug. There was no difference in the rate of zidovudine use between the controls and health care workers who reported exposure to HIV in the hospitals participating in the CDC Needlestick Study but who did not complete the six-month follow-up.

The absence of statistically significant interaction terms in the logistic-regression model implies that the effect of zidovudine use was the same for all types of exposure and that the odds of HIV transmission after exposure was the product of the odds associated with each of the risk factors present. However, the small number of case patients made it very unlikely that we would find significant interactions in the analysis. There were no significant differences between zidovudine regimens (i.e., daily dose, duration of treatment, and interval between exposure and the initial dose) used by controls and case patients; however, the small number of case patients who took zidovudine limited our ability to detect such differences. Finally, in the case of approximately 70 percent of the case patients and controls who took zidovudine, the source patients were taking zidovudine at the time of the health care workers' exposure. If exposure to zidovudine-resistant virus was more common among case patients than controls, the efficacy of the drug after exposure to a sensitive virus may be even higher than we estimated.

The results of this study have important implications for the counseling and treatment of a health care worker after exposure to HIV and for public health. We estimate that the risk of transmission for exposure involving relatively large quantities of blood, particularly when the source patient's viral load is probably high, is higher than the average risk of 0.3 percent. This type of exposure should be a particular focus of preventive measures18 and postexposure prophylaxis. Interviews of exposed health care workers should elicit information about factors associated with an increased risk of HIV transmission. Risk assessment should take into account the specific risk factors identified in this study, but it should be recognized that these factors are probably surrogates for an increased volume of blood and an increased viral load. Other factors, such as injection of blood or exposure involving a hollow-bore rather than a solid needle, may also be important but either were not assessed in this study or may not have been statistically significant because of the small number of cases involved.

In part on the basis of the results of this study, the Public Health Service and the International AIDS Society have recommended chemoprophylaxis after certain types of occupational exposure to HIV.19-21 The decision to recommend prophylaxis and the drug used depend on the type of exposure; the likelihood of drug resistance in the source patient's HIV strain or strains is also a factor in drug selection. Since chemoprophylaxis should be initiated promptly after exposure, implementation of these recommendations requires rapid, confidential mechanisms for evaluating exposed health care workers, ascertaining the HIV status of source patients, and starting prophylaxis, if appropriate.22,23 Although the current recommendations of the Public Health Service are limited to occupational exposure, others have extended these recommendations to include exposure related to sexual contact.24 It is unclear, however, whether the extent of the protective effect of postexposure prophylaxis after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood would be similar for other types of exposure.

Finally, the results of this study may interest expert review panels that determine which jobs are appropriate for HIV-infected health care workers.25 Although our study does not address this topic directly, it provides more precise documentation than was previously available regarding the influence of the volume of blood and stage of HIV infection on the risk of transmission after exposure to HIV-infected blood. The finding that the stage of AIDS of the source patient was an important predictor of the risk of HIV transmission suggests that previous estimates, which did not take into account the stage of HIV disease in infected health care workers, may have overestimated the risk to patients who were exposed to blood from health care workers in earlier stages of HIV infection.26

A major problem in developing recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis is the relatively limited amount of data on the safety and tolerability of new antiretroviral drugs in exposed, uninfected persons, most of whom would not become infected even without prophylaxis. To increase the amount of information available, health care providers in the United States are encouraged to enroll all workers who receive chemoprophylaxis in a national registry (without personal identifiers) at the following telephone number: 888-737-4448 (888-PEP-4HIV).

We are indebted to health department and hospital personnel in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States and to collaborating investigators in the CDC Needlestick Study for collecting information from exposed health care workers; to the health care workers themselves for their assistance in providing this information; and to Mary E. Chamberland, M.D., M.P.H., Brian R. Edlin, M.D., and Harold W. Jaffe, M.D., for reviewing the manuscript.

Source Information

From the Hospital Infections Program, National Center for Infectious Diseases (D.M.C., D.H.C., P.U.S., R.M., P.S.M., D.M.B.), and the Division of HIV/AIDS, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention (C.A.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta; the Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité and Groupe d'Étude sur le Risque d'Exposition au Sang, Paris (D.A.); the Public Health Laboratory Service Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre, London (J.H.); the Centro di Riferimento AIDS–Coordinamento Studio Italiano sul Rischio di Infezione Occupazionale da HIV, Rome (G.I.); and the Réseau National de Santé Publique, Saint Maurice, France (F.L.).

Address reprint requests to Dr. Cardo at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Mail Stop E-68, Atlanta, GA 30333.

References

References

1. 1

   Tokars JI, Marcus R, Culver DH, et al. Surveillance of HIV infection and zidovudine use among health care workers after occupational exposure to HIV-infected blood. Ann Intern Med 1993;118:913-919
   Web of Science | Medline

2. 2

   Henderson DK, Fahey BJ, Willy M, et al. Risk for occupational transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) associated with clinical exposures: a prospective evaluation. Ann Intern Med 1990;113:740-746
   Web of Science | Medline

3. 3

   Gerberding JL. Incidence and prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and cytomegalovirus among health care personnel at risk for blood exposure: final report from a longitudinal study. J Infect Dis 1994;170:1410-1417
   CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

4. 4

   Ippolito G, Puro V, De Carli G, Italian Study Group on Occupational Risk of HIV Infection. The risk of occupational human immunodeficiency virus infection in health care workers: Italian Multicenter Study. Arch Intern Med 1993;153:1451-1458
   CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

5. 5

   LaFon SW, Mooney BD, McMullen JP, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the safety and efficacy of Retrovir (zidovudine, ZDV) as a chemoprophylactic agent in health care workers (HCW) exposed to HIV. In: Program and abstracts of the 30th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Atlanta, October 21–24, 1990. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology, 1990:167.
   

6. 6

   Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood -- France, United Kingdom, and United States, January 1988-August 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1995;44:929-933
   Medline

7. 7

   Ho DD, Moudgil T, Alam M. Quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the blood of infected persons. N Engl J Med 1989;321:1621-1625
   Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

8. 8

   Richman DD, Bozzette S. The impact of syncytium-inducing phenotype of human immunodeficiency virus on disease progression. J Infect Dis 1994;169:968-974
   CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

9. 9

   Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med 1994;331:1173-1180
   Free Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

10. 10

    Sperling RS, Shapiro DE, Coombs R, et al. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1621-1629
    Free Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

11. 11

    Black R. Animal studies of prophylaxis. Am J Med 1997;102:5B-39S
    CrossRef

12. 12

    Tsai CC, Follis KE, Sabo A, et al. Prevention of SIV infection in macaques by (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl)adenine. Science 1995;270:1197-1199
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

13. 13

    Kinloch-de Loes S, Hirschel BJ, Hoen B, et al. A controlled trial of zidovudine in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1995;333:408-413[Erratum, N Engl J Med 1995;333:1367.]
    Free Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

14. 14

    Perelson AS, Neumann AU, Markowitz M, Leonard JM, Ho DD. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span and viral generation time. Science 1996;271:1582-6.
    

15. 15

    Jochimsen EM. Failure of zidovudine postexposure prophylaxis. Am J Med 1997;102:5B-52S
    CrossRef

16. 16

    Weisburd G, Biglione J, Arbulu MM, Terrazino JC, Pesiri A. HIV seroconversion after a work place accident and treated with zidovudine. In: Program and abstracts of the 11th International Conference on AIDS, Vancouver, B.C., July 7–12, 1996:460. abstract.
    

17. 17

    Lot F, Abiteboul D. Infections professionnelles par le V.I.H. en France: le point au 30 juin 1995. Bull Epidemiol Hebd 1995;44:193-194
    

18. 18

    Chamberland ME, Bell DM. Human immunodeficiency virus infection. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital infections. 4th ed. Boston: Little, Brown (in press).
    

19. 19

    Update: provisional Public Health Service recommendations for chemoprophylaxis after occupational exposure to HIVMMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1996;45:468-480
    Medline

20. 20

    Carpenter CC, Fischl MA, Hammer SM, et al. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in 1996: recommendations of an international panel. JAMA 1996;276:146-154
    CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

21. 21

    Bell DM, Gerberding JM, eds. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) postexposure management of health care workers. Am J Med 1997;102:5B-1S
    

22. 22

    Public Health Service statement on management of occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus, including considerations regarding zidovudine postexposure useMMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1990;39:1-14
    Medline

23. 23

    Gerberding JL. Postexposure prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus at San Francisco General Hospital. Am J Med 1997;102:5B-85S
    

24. 24

    Katz MH, Gerberding JL. Postexposure treatment of people exposed to the human immunodeficiency virus through sexual contact or injection-drug use. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1097-1100
    Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

25. 25

    Recommendations for preventing transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to patients during exposure-prone invasive proceduresMMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1991;40:1-9
    Medline

26. 26

    Bell DM, Shapiro CN, Culver DH, Martone WJ, Curran JW, Hughes JM. Risk of hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency virus transmission to a patient from an infected surgeon due to percutaneous injury during an invasive procedure: estimates based on a model. Infect Agents Dis 1992;1:263-269
    Medline

Citing Articles (360)

Citing Articles

1. 1

   Corbin G. Thompson, Myron S. Cohen, Angela D.M. Kashuba. (2013) Antiretroviral Pharmacology in Mucosal Tissues. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 63, S240-S247
   

2. 2

   Sten H. Vermund, José A. Tique, Holly M. Cassell, Megan E. Pask, Philip J. Ciampa, Carolyn M. Audet. (2013) Translation of Biomedical Prevention Strategies for HIV. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 63, S12-S25
   

3. 3

   Kachit Choopanya, Michael Martin, Pravan Suntharasamai, Udomsak Sangkum, Philip A Mock, Manoj Leethochawalit, Sithisat Chiamwongpaet, Praphan Kitisin, Pitinan Natrujirote, Somyot Kittimunkong, Rutt Chuachoowong, Roman J Gvetadze, Janet M McNicholl, Lynn A Paxton, Marcel E Curlin, Craig W Hendrix, Suphak Vanichseni. (2013) Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV infection in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand (the Bangkok Tenofovir Study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. The Lancet
   

4. 4

   H. Himmelreich, F. Walcher, I. Marzi, S. Wicker. (2013) Nadelstichverletzungen. Trauma und Berufskrankheit
   

5. 5

   Nidhi Vaid, Katherine M. Langan, Richard J. Maude. (2013) Post-exposure prophylaxis in resource-poor settings: review and recommendations for pre-departure risk assessment and planning for expatriate healthcare workers. Tropical Medicine & International Health 18:5, 588-595
   

6. 6

   Maria Carlota Borba Brum, Fábio Fernandes Dantas Filho, Zaira Balem Yates, Maria Cecília Verçoza Viana, Eunice Beatriz Martin Chaves, Damásio Macedo Trindade. (2013) HIV seroconversion in a health care worker who underwent postexposure prophylaxis following needlestick injury. American Journal of Infection Control 41:5, 471-472
   

7. 7

   Jessica M. Conway, Bernhard P. Konrad, Daniel Coombs. (2013) Stochastic Analysis of Pre- and Postexposure Prophylaxis against HIV Infection. SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics 73:2, 904-928
   

8. 8

   J. Jason. (2013) Community-acquired, non-occupational needlestick injuries treated in US Emergency Departments. Journal of Public Health
   

9. 9

   William James Packer, Rosalyn Louise Wort. (2013) Reflection on the consequences of a needlestick injury. African Journal of Emergency Medicine 3:1, 40
   

10. 10

    Preston Izulla, Lyle R. McKinnon, Julius Munyao, Sarah Karanja, Winnie Koima, Joshua Parmeres, Solomon Kamuti, Rosalia Kioko, Nico Nagelkerke, Gloria Gakii, Charles Wachihi, Nicholas Muraguri, Helgar Musyoki, Lawrence Gelmon, Rupert Kaul, Joshua Kimani. (2013) HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in an Urban Population of Female Sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 62:2, 220-225
    

11. 11

    Stephanie E. Cohen, Albert Y. Liu, Kyle T. Bernstein, Susan Philip. (2013) Preparing for HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 44:1, S80-S85
    

12. 12

    Igor Kozak, J. Allen McCutchan, William R. Freeman. HIV-Associated Infections. In: Retina. Elsevier, 2013:1441-1472.
    

13. 13

    Chun-Hui Xu, Tao Shen, Jia-Jia Zheng, Jing Tu, Wei-Dong Zhang, Feng-Min Lu. (2012) Higher dN/dS ratios in the HCV core gene, but not in the E1/HVR1 gene, are associated with human immunodeficiency virus-associated immunosuppression. Archives of Virology 157:11, 2153-2162
    

14. 14

    Ethan Cowan, Ruth Macklin. (2012) Unconsented HIV Testing in Cases of Occupational Exposure: Ethics, Law, and Policy. Academic Emergency Medicineno-no
    

15. 15

    Jagjit S. Yadav, Renuka Kapoor. Bloodborne Pathogens in the Workplace. In: Patty's Toxicology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2012.
    

16. 16

    H.F. Rabenau, R. Gottschalk, L. Gürtler, A.E. Haberl, O. Hamouda, H. Himmelreich, K. Korn, T. Mertens, K.W. Schmidt, S. Schmiedel, A. Spickhoff, G. Wirz, P. Wutzler, S. Wicker. (2012) Prävention der nosokomialen Übertragung von humanem Immunschwächevirus (HIV) durch HIV-positive Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeiter im Gesundheitswesen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz 55:8, 937-943
    

17. 17

    Alex Sigal, David Baltimore. (2012) As Good As It Gets? The Problem of HIV Persistence despite Antiretroviral Drugs. Cell Host & Microbe 12:2, 132-138
    

18. 18

    Steffanie A. Strathdee, Steven Shoptaw, Typhanye Penniman Dyer, Vu Minh Quan, Apinun Aramrattana. (2012) Towards combination HIV prevention for injection drug users. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS 7:4, 320-325
    

19. 19

    Elizabeth Arend, Anastasia Maw, Catherine de Swardt, Lynette A. Denny, Michelle Roland. (2012) South African Sexual Assault Survivors' Experiences of Post-Exposure Prophylaxis and Individualized Nursing Care: A Qualitative Study. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care
    

20. 20

    Kamis Gaballah, Dorothy Warbuton, Kamal Sihmbly, Tara Renton. (2012) Needle stick injuries among dental students: risk factors and recommendations for prevention. Libyan Journal of Medicine 7:0,
    

21. 21

    A.M.G.A. Laheij, J.O. Kistler, G.N. Belibasakis, H. Välimaa, J.J. de Soet. (2012) Healthcare-associated viral and bacterial infections in dentistry. Journal of Oral Microbiology 4:0,
    

22. 22

    JOSE A. BAZAN, JULIE E. MANGINO. (2012) Infection Control and Postexposure Prophylaxis for the Pregnant Healthcare Worker. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 55:2, 571-588
    

23. 23

    Raphael J. Landovitz, Jesse B. Fletcher, Galina Inzhakova, Jordan E. Lake, Steven Shoptaw, Cathy J. Reback. (2012) A Novel Combination HIV Prevention Strategy: Post-Exposure Prophylaxis with Contingency Management for Substance Abuse Treatment Among Methamphetamine-Using Men Who Have Sex with Men. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 26:6, 320-328
    

24. 24

    Kevin M. De Cock, Harold W. Jaffe, James W. Curran. (2012) The evolving epidemiology of HIV/AIDS. AIDS 26:10, 1205-1213
    

25. 25

    (2012) Documento de consenso de Gesida/Plan Nacional sobre el Sida respecto al tratamiento antirretroviral en adultos infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (actualización enero de 2012). Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 30:6, e1-e89
    

26. 26

    Osama Ishtiaq, Asif Mehmood Qadri, Saeed Mehar, Ghulam Murtaza Gondal, Tahir Iqbal, Sobia Ali, Mati-ur-Rahman, Naveed Zafar Janjua. (2012) Disposal of syringes, needles, and lancets used by diabetic patients in Pakistan. Journal of Infection and Public Health 5:2, 182-188
    

27. 27

    Kenneth H. Mayer, Matthew J. Mimiaga, Marcy Gelman, Chris Grasso. (2012) Raltegravir, Tenofovir DF, and Emtricitabine for Postexposure Prophylaxis to Prevent the Sexual Transmission of HIV. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 59:4, 354-359
    

28. 28

    Charlene Flash, Douglas Krakower, Kenneth H. Mayer. (2012) The Promise of Antiretrovirals for HIV Prevention. Current Infectious Disease Reports
    

29. 29

    L. M. Upjohn, R. L. Stuart, T. M. Korman, I. J. Woolley. (2012) New HIV diagnosis after occupational exposure screening: the importance of reporting needlestick injuries. Internal Medicine Journal 42:2, 202-204
    

30. 30

    S. Wicker, H.F. Rabenau, A.E. Haberl, A. Bühren, W.O. Bechstein, C.M. Sarrazin. (2012) Blutübertragbare Infektionen und die schwangere Mitarbeiterin im Gesundheitswesen. Der Chirurg 83:2, 136-142
    

31. 31

    Henry Masur. HIV Infection and Its Relationship to Knee Disorders. In: Insall & Scott Surgery of the Knee. Elsevier, 2012:e77-1-e77-15.
    

32. 32

    Thomas J. Walsh, John N. Krieger. Urologic Aspects of AIDS and HIV Infection. In: Campbell-Walsh Urology. Elsevier, 2012:417-435.e5.
    

33. 33

    Salim S. Abdool Karim. HIV prevention. In: Sande's HIV/AIDS Medicine. Elsevier, 2012:113-121.
    

34. 34

    Midwives and Occupational Exposures to HIV. In: Scientific Basis of Healthcare. Science Publishers, 2011:53-70.
    

35. 35

    Ronald A. Brooks, Raphael J. Landovitz, Rachel L. Kaplan, Eli Lieber, Sung-Jae Lee, Thomas W. Barkley. (2011) Sexual Risk Behaviors and Acceptability of HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Among HIV-Negative Gay and Bisexual Men in Serodiscordant Relationships: A Mixed Methods Study. AIDS Patient Care and STDs111207094037003
    

36. 36

    Douglas Krakower, Kenneth H. Mayer. (2011) Promising Prevention Approaches: Tenofovir Gel and Prophylactic Use of Antiretroviral Medications. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 8:4, 241-248
    

37. 37

    José Heuker, Gerard J.B. Sonder, Ineke Stolte, Ronald Geskus, Anneke Van Den Hoek. (2011) High HIV incidence among MSM prescribed postexposure prophylaxis in Amsterdam, 2000–2009. AIDS1
    

38. 38

    L. Beletsky, A. Agrawal, B. Moreau, P. Kumar, N. Weiss-Laxer, R. Heimer. (2011) Police Training to Align Law Enforcement and HIV Prevention: Preliminary Evidence From the Field. American Journal of Public Health 101:11, 2012-2015
    

39. 39

    Harkaitz Azkune, Maialen Ibarguren, Xabier Camino, José Antonio Iribarren. (2011) Prevención de la transmisión del VIH (vertical, ocupacional y no ocupacional). Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 29:8, 615-625
    

40. 40

    Erik De Clercq. (2011) Pre-exposure chemoprophylaxis of HIV infection: Quo vadis?. Biochemical Pharmacology
    

41. 41

    S. Deuffic-Burban, E. Delarocque-Astagneau, D. Abiteboul, E. Bouvet, Y. Yazdanpanah. (2011) Blood-borne viruses in health care workers: Prevention and management. Journal of Clinical Virology 52:1, 4-10
    

42. 42

    Cindy W. Christian. (2011) Timing of the Medical Examination. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 20:5, 505-520
    

43. 43

    Linden , Judith A. , . (2011) Care of the Adult Patient after Sexual Assault. New England Journal of Medicine 365:9, 834-841
    Free Full Text

44. 44

    Kelly A Curtis, M Susan Kennedy, Amara Luckay, Mian-er Cong, Ae S Youngpairoj, Qi Zheng, James Smith, Debra Hanson, Walid Heneine, S Michele Owen, J Gerardo García-Lerma. (2011) Delayed Maturation of Antibody Avidity but Not Seroconversion in Rhesus Macaques Infected With Simian HIV During Oral Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 57:5, 355-362
    

45. 45

    Gita Ramjee. (2011) Antiretroviral-based microbicides and oral pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention. Future Virology 6:8, 997-1014
    

46. 46

    M. E. Roland, T. B. Neilands, M. R. Krone, T. J. Coates, K. Franses, M. A. Chesney, J. S. Kahn, J. N. Martin. (2011) A Randomized Noninferiority Trial of Standard Versus Enhanced Risk Reduction and Adherence Counseling for Individuals Receiving Post-Exposure Prophylaxis Following Sexual Exposures to HIV. Clinical Infectious Diseases 53:1, 76-83
    

47. 47

    M. B. O’Connor, M. J. Hannon, D. Cagney, U. Harrington, F. O’Brien, N. Hardiman, R. O’Connor, K. Courtney, C. O’Connor. (2011) A study of needle stick injuries among non-consultant hospital doctors in Ireland. Irish Journal of Medical Science 180:2, 445-449
    

48. 48

    Jean-Louis Excler, Wasima Rida, Frances Priddy, Jill Gilmour, Adrian B. McDermott, Anatoli Kamali, Omu Anzala, Gaudensia Mutua, Eduard J. Sanders, Wayne Koff, Seth Berkley, Patricia Fast. (2011) AIDS Vaccines and Preexposure Prophylaxis: Is Synergy Possible?. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 27:6, 669-680
    

49. 49

    Richard Parker, James Neuberger. (2011) Retrieval-Related Deaths—Risks to the Team. Transplantation 91:11, 1185-1186
    

50. 50

    Rishi Bali, Parveen Sharma, Amandeep Garg. (2011) Incidence and patterns of needlestick injuries during intermaxillary fixation. British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 49:3, 221-224
    

51. 51

    Susan P. Buchbinder, Albert Liu. (2011) Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis and the Promise of Combination Prevention Approaches. AIDS and Behavior 15:S1, 72-79
    

52. 52

    David Rey. (2011) Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 9:4, 431-442
    

53. 53

    Bernadette Stringer, Ted Haines. (2011) Ongoing Use of Conventional Devices and Safety Device Activation Rates in Hospitals in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 8:3, 154-160
    

54. 54

    Michelle E. Roland, Landon Myer, Lorna J. Martin, Anastasia Maw, Priya Batra, Elizabeth Arend, Thomas J. Coates, Lynette A. Denny. (2011) Preventing Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Among Sexual Assault Survivors in Cape Town, South Africa: An Observational Study. AIDS and Behavior
    

55. 55

    B. Kirsch, H. Klinker, R. Huber. (2011) HIV in der Gefäßchirurgie. Gefässchirurgie 16:1, 38-43
    

56. 56

    Amy P. Goldberg. HIV and Aids in Child and Adolescent Victims of Sexual Abuse and Assault. In: Child Abuse and Neglect. Elsevier, 2011:186-192.
    

57. 57

    C. Semaille, F. Lot, J. Pillonel, F. Cazein. (2011) Épidémiologie, transmission et prévention de l'infection à VIH. EMC - Maladies infectieuses 8:1, 1-10
    

58. 58

    L. Bentz, P. Enel, B. Dunais, J. Durant, I. Poizot-Martin, C. Tourette-Turgis, M. Rébillon, F. Le Duff, P. Dellamonica, C. Pradier. (2010) Evaluating counseling outcome on adherence to prophylaxis and follow-up after sexual HIV-risk exposure: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS Care 22:12, 1509-1516
    

59. 59

    Kenneth H Mayer, Kartik K Venkatesh. (2010) Chemoprophylaxis for HIV Prevention: New Opportunities and New Questions. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 55, S122-S127
    

60. 60

    M R Nicol, A D M Kashuba. (2010) Pharmacologic Opportunities for HIV Prevention. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 88:5, 598-609
    

61. 61

    Gerard J. B. Sonder, Jan M. Prins, Rosa M. Regez, Kees Brinkman, Jan-Willem Mulder, Jan Veenstra, Frans A. P. Claessen, Anneke van den Hoek. (2010) Comparison of Two HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Regimens Among Men Who Have Sex With Men in Amsterdam: Adverse Effects Do Not Influence Compliance. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 37:11, 681-686
    

62. 62

    Deborah Donnell, Matthew J. Mimiaga, Kenneth Mayer, Margaret Chesney, Beryl Koblin, Thomas Coates. (2010) Use of Non-Occupational Post-Exposure Prophylaxis does not Lead to an Increase in High Risk Sex Behaviors in Men Who have Sex with Men Participating in the EXPLORE Trial. AIDS and Behavior 14:5, 1182-1189
    

63. 63

    F Tissot, V Erard, T Dang, M Cavassini. (2010) Nonoccupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: a 10-year retrospective analysis. HIV Medicine 11:9, 584-592
    

64. 64

    Jonathan Weber, Roger Tatoud, Sarah Fidler. (2010) Postexposure prophylaxis, preexposure prophylaxis or universal test and treat: the strategic use of antiretroviral drugs to prevent HIV acquisition and transmission. AIDS 24:Suppl 4, S27-S39
    

65. 65

    K. H. Mayer, K. K. Venkatesh. (2010) Antiretroviral Therapy as HIV Prevention: Status and Prospects. American Journal of Public Health 100:10, 1867-1876
    

66. 66

    L. A. Burrows, A. Padkin. (2010) ORIGINAL ARTICLE: A survey of the management of needlestick injuries from incapacitated patients in intensive care units*. Anaesthesia 65:9, 880-884
    

67. 67

    Sarit A Golub, William Kowalczyk, Corina L Weinberger, Jeffrey T Parsons. (2010) Preexposure Prophylaxis and Predicted Condom Use Among High-Risk Men Who Have Sex With Men. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 54:5, 548-555
    

68. 68

    Georgiy V. Bobashev, William A. Zule. (2010) Modeling the effect of high dead-space syringes on the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic among injecting drug users. Addiction 105:8, 1439-1447
    

69. 69

    Tristan J Barber, Paul D Benn. (2010) Postexposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS 5:4, 322-326
    

70. 70

    Kartik K Venkatesh, Mark N Lurie, Kenneth H Mayer. (2010) How HIV treatment could result in effective prevention. Future Virology 5:4, 405-415
    

71. 71

    Panel de expertos de Gesida, Plan Nacional sobre el Sida. (2010) Documento de consenso del Grupo de Estudio de Sida/Plan Nacional sobre el Sida respecto al tratamiento antirretroviral en adultos infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (actualización enero 2010). Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 28:6, 362.e1-362.e91
    

72. 72

    Ruxana Jina, Rachel Jewkes, Stephen P. Munjanja, José David Ortiz Mariscal, Elizabeth Dartnall, Yirgu Gebrehiwot. (2010) Report of the FIGO Working Group on Sexual Violence/HIV: Guidelines for the management of female survivors of sexual assault. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 109:2, 85-92
    

73. 73

    Rachel L. Chin. (2010) Postexposure Prophylaxis for HIV. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 28:2, 421-429
    

74. 74

    Gisela Enders. Viral Infections of the Fetus and Neonate, other than Rubella. In: Topley & Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2010.
    

75. 75

    K. Weißenberg, J. Zagrodnik. (2010) Abdominelle Bisswunde durch einen HIV-positiven Patienten. Notfall + Rettungsmedizin 13:2, 145-147
    

76. 76

    Nirupam Prakash, Anupam Prakash, Shweta Saxena, Aruna Nigaml. (2010) Occupational Blood Borne Infections: Prevention is Better than Cure. Apollo Medicine 7:1, 85-91
    

77. 77

    Kim Wieczorek. (2010) A forensic nursing protocol for initiating human immunodeficiency virus post-exposure prophylaxis following sexual assault. Journal of Forensic Nursing 6:1, 29-39
    

78. 78

    Kirsten Bechtel. (2010) Sexual abuse and sexually transmitted infections in children and adolescents. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 22:1, 94-99
    

79. 79

    J. G. Garcia-Lerma, M.-e. Cong, J. Mitchell, A. S. Youngpairoj, Q. Zheng, S. Masciotra, A. Martin, Z. Kuklenyik, A. Holder, J. Lipscomb, C.-P. Pau, J. R. Barr, D. L. Hanson, R. Otten, L. Paxton, T. M. Folks, W. Heneine. (2010) Intermittent Prophylaxis with Oral Truvada Protects Macaques from Rectal SHIV Infection. Science Translational Medicine 2:14, 14ra4-14ra4
    

80. 80

    Sue King, Jason O'Keeffe, Deidre Edmonds, Judy Brett. (2010) Good ViBES – Results from a Victorian Blood Exposure Surveillance (ViBES) initiative 2005–2008. Healthcare Infection 15:3, 71
    

81. 81

    Suzanne Lunding, Terese L. Katzenstein, Gitte Kronborg, Jens Å. Lindberg, Janne Jensen, Henrik I. Nielsen, Court Pedersen, Louise B. Jørgensen. (2010) The Danish PEP Registry: Experience With the Use of Postexposure Prophylaxis (PEP) Following Sexual Exposure to HIV From 1998 to 2006. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 37:1, 49-52
    

82. 82

    Pernille Jorgensen, Ulrich Marcus, Helmut Albrecht, Norbert Suttorp, Dirk Schürmann. (2010) Serial knife stabbings with HIV exposure – Implications for post-exposure prophylaxis. Journal of Infection 60:1, 76-78
    

83. 83

    Christine Burty, Thierry Prazuck, Francois Truchetet, Bernard Christian, Christian Penalba, Dominique Salmon-Ceron, Yazdan Yazdanpanah, Thierry May, Christian Rabaud. (2010) Tolerability of Two Different Combinations of Antiretroviral Drugs Including Tenofovir Used in Occupational and Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis for HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 24:1, 1-3
    

84. 84

    Rowena Johnston, Chris Collins. (2010) Can We Treat Our Way Out of HIV?. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 26:1, 1-4
    

85. 85

    S. Dhanireddy, R. Harrington. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. In: Atlas of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and AIDS. Elsevier, 2010:256-286.
    

86. 86

    Yeon-Soon Ahn. (2010) Infectious Diseases among Healthcare Workers. Journal of the Korean Medical Association 53:6, 454
    

87. 87

    Peter Erik Sokolove. Standard Precautions and Infectious Exposure Management. In: Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine. Elsevier, 2010:1307-1312.
    

88. 88

    Carolyn Sachs, Malinda Wheeler. Examination of the Sexual Assault Victim. In: Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine. Elsevier, 2010:1069-1083.
    

89. 89

    CARLOS DEL RIO, JAMES W. CURRAN. Epidemiology and Prevention of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. In: Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Elsevier, 2010:1635-1661.
    

90. 90

    DAVID K. HENDERSON. Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Health Care Settings. In: Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Elsevier, 2010:3753-3770.
    

91. 91

    Dorre Nicholau, William P. Arnold. Environmental Safety Including Chemical Dependency. In: Miller's Anesthesia. Elsevier, 2010:3053-3073.
    

92. 92

    MARVIN S. REITZ, ROBERT C. GALLO. Human Immunodeficiency Viruses. In: Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Elsevier, 2010:2323-2335.
    

93. 93

    William F. Griffith, Gary E. Ackerman, Cindy L. Zoellner, Jeanne S. Sheffield. (2010) Sexual Assault: A Report on Human Immunodeficiency Virus Postexposure Prophylaxis. Obstetrics and Gynecology International 2010, 1-6
    

94. 94

    Davide Gibellini, Marco Borderi, Isabella Bon, Carlo Biagetti, Elisa De Crignis, Maria Carla Re. (2009) HIV-1 infection of a nurse from a newborn with an unknown HIV infection: A case report. Journal of Clinical Virology 46:4, 374-377
    

95. 95

    Joshua G. Vose, Jeanne McAdara-Berkowitz. (2009) Reducing Scalpel Injuries in the Operating Room. AORN Journal 90:6, 867-872
    

96. 96

    Givans Kay Ateka. (2009) Regarding inconsistent Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV guidelines: is WHO a victim or villain?. AIDS 23:17, 2373-2374
    

97. 97

    Landovitz , Raphael J. , Currier , Judith S. , . (2009) Postexposure Prophylaxis for HIV Infection. New England Journal of Medicine 361:18, 1768-1775
    Free Full Text

98. 98

    R. Lee. (2009) Occupational transmission of bloodborne diseases to healthcare workers in developing countries: meeting the challenges. Journal of Hospital Infection 72:4, 285-291
    

99. 99

    I Mary Poynten, Fengyi Jin, Limin Mao, Garrett P Prestage, Susan C Kippax, John M Kaldor, John Imrie, Andrew E Grulich. (2009) Nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis, subsequent risk behaviour and HIV incidence in a cohort of Australian homosexual men. AIDS 23:9, 1119-1126
    

100. 100

     Samir Dervisevic, Deenan Pillay. Control of bloodborne viral infections. In: Ayliffe's Control of Healthcare-Associated Infection Fifth Edition. CRC Press, 2009:187-208.
     

101. 101

     Virginia Louise Abell. (2009) Seeking Sharps Safety. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice 17:3, 134-135
     

102. 102

     Jiangwei Li, Wenjun Xie, Ning Fang, Edward S. Yeung. (2009) Single-molecule immunosorbent assay as a tool for human immunodeficiency virus-1 antigen detection. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 394:2, 489-497
     

103. 103

     Abraham M Siika, Winston M Nyandiko, Ann Mwangi, Michael Waxman, John E Sidle, Sylvester N Kimaiyo, Kara Wools-Kaloustian. (2009) The Structure and Outcomes of a HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Program in a High HIV Prevalence Setup in Western Kenya. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 51:1, 47-53
     

104. 104

     William A. Zule, Georgiy Bobashev. (2009) High dead-space syringes and the risk of HIV and HCV infection among injecting drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 100:3, 204-213
     

105. 105

     Olivier Bourry, Patricia Brochard, Sandrine Souquiere, Maria Makuwa, Julien Calvo, Nathalie Dereudre-Bosquet, Frédéric Martinon, Henri Benech, Mirdad Kazanji, Roger Le Grand. (2009) Prevention of vaginal simian immunodeficiency virus transmission in macaques by postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine, lamivudine and indinavir. AIDS 23:4, 447-454
     

106. 106

     (2009) HIV and AIDS in the Workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 51:2, 243-250
     

107. 107

     Charles I Okwundu, Christy AN Okoromah, Charles I Okwundu. Antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for preventing HIV in high-risk individuals. In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2009.
     

108. 108

     Revle Bangor-Jones, Donna Mak, Susan Laing, Graham Brown. (2009) Social marketing strategy to increase awareness of non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis (NPEP) followed by increased NPEP awareness and more appropriate use. Sexual Health 6:4, 348
     

109. 109

     G. Le Guerroué, J.-L. Pourriat. (2009) Esposizione accidentale al sangue o ai liquidi biologici. EMC - Urgenze 13:2, 1-9
     

110. 110

     Matthew J Mimiaga, Patricia Case, Carey V Johnson, Steven A Safren, Kenneth H Mayer. (2009) Preexposure Antiretroviral Prophylaxis Attitudes in High-Risk Boston Area Men Who Report Having Sex With Men: Limited Knowledge and Experience but Potential for Increased Utilization After Education. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 50:1, 77-83
     

111. 111

     David J. Wlody. Human Immunodeficiency Virus. In: Chestnut's Obstetric Anesthesia: Principles and Practice. Elsevier, 2009:961-974.
     

112. 112

     Willo Pequegnat, Ellen Stover. Payoff from AIDS behavioral prevention research. In: HIV Prevention. Elsevier, 2009:167-202.
     

113. 113

     Cynthia L. Gay, Angela D. Kashuba, Myron S. Cohen. Using antiretrovirals to prevent HIV transmission. In: HIV Prevention. Elsevier, 2009:107-145.
     

114. 114

     Salim S Abdool Karim, Cheryl Baxter. (2009) Antiretroviral prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection: future implementation challenges. HIV Therapy 3:1, 3-6
     

115. 115

     Matthias Möhrenschlager, Johannnes Ring, Verena Henkel, Berthold Jessberger. (2008) Lost needle: a simple search device for the operating room’s floor. Langenbeck's Archives of Surgery 393:6, 1009-1011
     

116. 116

     Sarit A. Golub, Lisa Rosenthal, Daniel E. Cohen, Kenneth H. Mayer. (2008) Determinants of High-Risk Sexual Behavior during Post-Exposure Prophylaxis to Prevent HIV Infection. AIDS and Behavior 12:6, 852-859
     

117. 117

     Nuria Vives, Jesús Almeda, Claudia A. Contreras, Felipe García, Magda Campins, Jordi Casabona. (2008) Demanda y prescripción de la profilaxis postexposición no ocupacional al VIH en España (2001-2005). Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 26:9, 546-551
     

118. 118

     Nicole Prada, Brandi Davis, Patrick Jean-Pierre, Matthew La Roche, Fuh-Mei Duh, Mary Carrington, Michael Poles, Saurabh Mehandru, Hiroshi Mohri, Martin Markowitz. (2008) Drug-Susceptible HIV-1 Infection Despite Intermittent Fixed-Dose Combination Tenofovir/Emtricitabine as Prophylaxis Is Associated With Low-Level Viremia, Delayed Seroconversion, and an Attenuated Clinical Course. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 49:2, 117-122
     

119. 119

     Janine Jagger. (2008) Fine points about safety syringes and level of risk. American Journal of Infection Control 36:7, 501-502
     

120. 120

     Nancy S Padian, Anne Buvé, Jennifer Balkus, David Serwadda, Ward Cates. (2008) Biomedical interventions to prevent HIV infection: evidence, challenges, and way forward. The Lancet 372:9638, 585-599
     

121. 121

     Cynthia L. Gay, Myron S. Cohen. (2008) Antiretrovirals to prevent HIV infection: Pre-and postexposure prophylaxis. Current Infectious Disease Reports 10:4, 323-331
     

122. 122

     Sabine Wicker, Holger F. Rabenau. (2008) Das Risiko von Nadelstichverletzungen im Rahmen des Medizinstudiums / Risk of needlestick injuries in medical school. LaboratoriumsMedizin 32:4, 274-279
     

123. 123

     Sabine Wicker, Holger F. Rabenau. (2008) Risk of needlestick injuries during medical school ¹. LaboratoriumsMedizin 32:4, ---
     

124. 124

     Andrew E. Petroll, C. Bradley Hare, Steven D. Pinkerton. (2008) The Essentials of HIV. Journal of Infusion Nursing 31:4, 228-235
     

125. 125

     William L. HOLZEMER. (2008) HIV infection: Fear of contagion, reality of risk. Japan Journal of Nursing Science 5:1, 5-8
     

126. 126

     CI OKWUNDU, C Okoromah, Charles Okwundu. Antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for preventing HIV in high risk individuals. In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008.
     

127. 127

     Kenneth H Mayer, Matthew J Mimiaga, Daniel Cohen, Chris Grasso, Ronn Bill, Rodney VanDerwarker, Alvan Fisher. (2008) Tenofovir DF Plus Lamivudine or Emtricitabine for Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis (NPEP) in a Boston Community Health Center. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 47:4, 494-499
     

128. 128

     Rachel Hignett, Roshan Fernando. (2008) Anesthesia for the Pregnant HIV Patient. Anesthesiology Clinics 26:1, 127-143
     

129. 129

     Roland C Merchant, Kerlen J Chee, Tao Liu, Kenneth H Mayer. (2008) Incidence of Visits for Health Care Worker Blood or Body Fluid Exposures and HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Provision at Rhode Island Emergency Departments. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 47:3, 358-368
     

130. 130

     Tahaniyat Lalani, Charles Hicks. (2008) Does antiretroviral therapy prevent HIV transmission to sexual partners?. Current Infectious Disease Reports 10:2, 140-145
     

131. 131

     M. Taegtmeyer, R. M. Suckling, P. M. Nguku, C. Meredith, J. Kibaru, J. M. Chakaya, H. Muchela, C. F. Gilks. (2008) Working with risk: Occupational safety issues among healthcare workers in Kenya. AIDS Care 20:3, 304-310
     

132. 132

     Jeremy S. Bock, David J. Riedel, Charles E. Davis. (2008) A Prickly Situation. The American Journal of Medicine 121:3, 199-200
     

133. 133

     Hasanat Alamgir, Yuri Cvitkovich, George Astrakianakis, Shicheng Yu, Annalee Yassi. (2008) Needlestick and other potential blood and body fluid exposures among health care workers in British Columbia, Canada. American Journal of Infection Control 36:1, 12-21
     

134. 134

     N. Kilonzo, M. Taegtmeyer, C. Molyneux, J. Kibaru, V. Kimonji, S. Theobald. (2008) Engendering health sector responses to sexual violence and HIV in Kenya: Results of a qualitative study. AIDS Care 20:2, 188-190
     

135. 135

     Roland C. Merchant, Kenneth H. Mayer, Bruce M. Becker, Allison K. Delong, Joseph W. Hogan. (2008) Predictors of the Initiation of HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in Rhode Island Emergency Departments. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 22:1, 41-52
     

136. 136

     Zachary F. Meisel, Stephen Hargarten, Jon Vernick. (2008) Addressing Prehospital Patient Safety Using the Science of Injury Prevention andControl. Prehospital Emergency Care 12:4, 411-416
     

137. 137

     Janine Jagger, Jane Perry, Ahmed Gomaa, Elayne Kornblatt Phillips. (2008) The impact of U.S. policies to protect healthcare workers from bloodborne pathogens: The critical role of safety-engineered devices. Journal of Infection and Public Health 1:2, 62-71
     

138. 138

     Adelisa L. Panlilio, Denise M. Cardo. Post-exposure Prevention. In: Global HIV/AIDS Medicine. Elsevier, 2008:711-724.
     

139. 139

     Daniel R. Lefebvre, Louise F. Strande, Charles W. Hewitt. (2008) An Enzyme-Mediated Assay to Quantify Inoculation Volume Delivered by Suture Needlestick Injury: Two Gloves Are Better Than One. Journal of the American College of Surgeons 206:1, 113-122
     

140. 140

     Cathryn Murphy. (2008) Response to Strengthening of Australian Sharps Container Standard. Healthcare Infection 13:2, 30
     

141. 141

     Judy Levison. (2008) The Ostrich Syndrome. Obstetrics & Gynecology 111:1, 183-186
     

142. 142

     Helene D. Gayle. HIV Prevention. In: Global HIV/AIDS Medicine. Elsevier, 2008:91-100.
     

143. 143

     Esther H. Chen. Postexposure Prophylaxis. In: Pediatric Emergency Medicine. Elsevier, 2008:1097-1102.
     

144. 144

     Dennis G. Maki, Christopher J. Crnich, Nasia Safdar. Nosocomial Infection in the Intensive Care Unit. In: Critical Care Medicine. Elsevier, 2008:1003-1069.
     

145. 145

     G. Le Guerroué, J.-L. Pourriat. (2008) Accidents d'exposition au sang ou aux liquides biologiques. EMC - Médecine d 'urgence 3:2, 1-9
     

146. 146

     Jean-François Hermieu, Vincent Ravery, Vincent Delmas, Laurent Boccon-Gibod, Elisabeth Bouvet. (2008) Manifestations urologiques de l'infection par le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine. EMC - Urologie 1:1, 1-10
     

147. 147

     Val Catanzarite, Kevin Byrd, Mike McNamara, Allan Bombard. (2007) Preventing Needlestick Injuries in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Obstetrics & Gynecology 110:6, 1399-1403
     

148. 148

     N. Hiransuthikul, P. Hiransuthikul, Y. Kanasuk. (2007) Human immunodeficiency virus postexposure prophylaxis for occupational exposure in a medical school hospital in Thailand. Journal of Hospital Infection 67:4, 344-349
     

149. 149

     Lei Kang, Jing Hu, Xue-shan Xia, Jian-guo Wu. (2007) HIV and HCV: from Co-infection to epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, and treatment. Virologica Sinica 22:6, 443-450
     

150. 150

     Sabine Wicker, Juliane Jung, Regina Allwinn, René Gottschalk, Holger F. Rabenau. (2007) Prevalence and prevention of needlestick injuries among health care workers in a German university hospital. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 81:3, 347-354
     

151. 151

     Tim Young, Hangwi Tang, John Aukes, Rodney Hughes, Tim Young. Vena caval filters for the prevention of pulmonary embolism. In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2007.
     

152. 152

     Karen Slater, Michael Whitby, Mary-Louise McLaws. (2007) Prevention of needlestick injuries: The need for strategic marketing to address health care worker misperceptions. American Journal of Infection Control 35:8, 560-562
     

153. 153

     Philip J. Davis, Donald Spady, Sarah E.D. Forgie. (2007) A survey of Alberta physicians' use of and attitudes toward face masks and face shields in the operating room setting. American Journal of Infection Control 35:7, 455-459
     

154. 154

     O.O. Oguntibeju ., W.M.J. van den Heever ., F.E. Van Schalkwyk .. (2007) A Review of the Epidemiology, Biology and Pathogenesis of HIV. Journal of Biological Sciences 7:8, 1296-1304
     

155. 155

     R. Krikorian, A. Lozach-Perlant, A. Ferrier-Rembert, P. Hoerner, P. Sonntag, D. Garin, J.-M. Crance. (2007) Standardization of needlestick injury and evaluation of a novel virus-inhibiting protective glove. Journal of Hospital Infection 66:4, 339-345
     

156. 156

     Arthur Y. Kim, Georg M. Lauer. (2007) Pathogenesis of HIV-HCV coinfection. Current Infectious Disease Reports 9:4, 331-337
     

157. 157

     Vasileia Konte, Georgios Nikolopoulos, Vasilios Raftopoulos, Magda Pylli, Chrissa Tsiara, Efraxia Makri, Dimitra Paraskeva. (2007) Surveillance of HIV Exposure and Postexposure Prophylaxis Among Health Care Workers in Greece. Public Health Nursing 24:4, 337-342
     

158. 158

     Makary , Martin A. , Al-Attar , Ali , Holzmueller , Christine G. , Sexton , J. Bryan , Syin , Dora , Gilson , Marta M. , Sulkowski , Mark S. , Pronovost , Peter J. , . (2007) Needlestick Injuries among Surgeons in Training. New England Journal of Medicine 356:26, 2693-2699
     Free Full Text

159. 159

     A. Luque, S. Hulse, D. Wang, U. Shahzad, E. Tanzman, S. Antenozzi, B. Smith. (2007) Assessment of Adverse Events Associated With Antiretroviral Regimens for Postexposure Prophylaxis for Occupational and Nonoccupational Exposures to Prevent Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 28:6, 695-701
     

160. 160

     RUENREONG LEELANUKROM, CHITSANU PANCHAROEN. (2007) Anesthesia in HIV-infected children. Pediatric Anesthesia 17:6, 509-519
     

161. 161

     Tahaniyat Lalani, Charles Hicks. (2007) Does antiretroviral therapy prevent HIV transmission to sexual partners?. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 4:2, 80-85
     

162. 162

     Prasanna Jagannathan, Raphael Landovitz, Michelle E Roland. (2007) Postexposure prophylaxis after sexual exposure to HIV. Future HIV Therapy 1:1, 35-47
     

163. 163

     Nicola M. Zetola, Christopher D. Pilcher. (2007) Diagnosis and Management of Acute HIV Infection. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 21:1, 19-48
     

164. 164

     Haruhiko Nukaya, Tomoyoshi Ohno, Kenji Sakakibara, Atunaga Kato, Izumi Hasegawa, Seijiro Matunaga, Masayuki Endo, Yoshito Tanaka, Noboru Hirashima, Yasuhito Tanaka, Etsuro Orito, Takashi Joh, Masashi Mizokami. (2007) Accidental exposure to HCV antibody-positive blood in hospital and pre-emptive one-shot interferon alpha-2b treatment. Hepatology Research 37:3, 179-185
     

165. 165

     Brian Wells Pence, William C Miller, Bradley N Gaynes, Joseph J Eron. (2007) Psychiatric Illness and Virologic Response in Patients Initiating Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 44:2, 159-166
     

166. 166

     Madelyn Azar‐Cavanagh, Pam Burdt, Judith Green‐McKenzie. (2007) Effect of the Introduction of an Engineered Sharps Injury Prevention Device on the Percutaneous Injury Rate in Healthcare Workers • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 28:2, 165-170
     

167. 167

     Michelle E Roland. (2007) Postexposure prophylaxis after sexual exposure to HIV. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 20:1, 39-46
     

168. 168

     Taryn Young, Fanelo James Arens, Gail E Kennedy, John W Laurie, George W Rutherford, Taryn Young. Antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for occupational HIV exposure. In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2007.
     

169. 169

     Janine Jagger. (2007) Caring for Healthcare Workers: A Global Perspective • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 28:1, 1-4
     

170. 170

     Robyn R. M. Gershon, Martin Sherman, Clifford Mitchell, David Vlahov, Melissa J. Erwin, Mary Kathleen Lears, Sarah Felknor, Rebecca A. Lubelczyk, Miriam J. Alter. (2007) Prevalence and Risk Factors for Bloodborne Exposure and Infection in Correctional Healthcare Workers • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 28:1, 24-30
     

171. 171

     Roberta Terzi, Fosca Niero, Enrico Iemoli, Amedeo Capetti, Massimo Coen, Giuliano Rizzardini. (2007) Late HIV seroconversion after non-occupational postexposure prophylaxis against HIV with concomitant hepatitis C virus seroconversion. AIDS 21:2, 262-263
     

172. 172

     David N. Fisman, Anthony D. Harris, Michael Rubin, Gary S. Sorock, Murray A. Mittleman. (2007) Fatigue Increases the Risk of Injury From Sharp Devices in Medical Trainees: Results From a Case‐Crossover Study • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 28:1, 10-17
     

173. 173

     A BERRY. Management of a Needlestick. In: Decision Making in Anesthesiology. Elsevier, 2007:616-620.
     

174. 174

     Myung-Don Oh. (2007) Antiretroviral Therapy for Treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection. Journal of the Korean Medical Association 50:4, 316
     

175. 175

     Moon Won Kang. (2007) Prevention of HIV/AIDS. Journal of the Korean Medical Association 50:4, 330
     

176. 176

     Kirsten Thomsen. Standard Precautions. In: Essential Clinical Procedures. Elsevier, 2007:11-22.
     

177. 177

     Michael D. Grossman, Stanislaw P. Stawicki. (2006) The impact of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) on outcome and practice in trauma: Past, present and future. Injury 37:12, 1117-1124
     

178. 178

     Carlos Franco-Paredes, Ildefonso Tellez, Carlos Rio. (2006) Rapid HIV testing: A review of the literature and implications for the clinician. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 3:4, 169-175
     

179. 179

     Gillian Dilke-Wing. Drugs in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. In: Gynecological Drug Therapy. CRC Press, 2006:287-305.
     

180. 180

     H. Körner, O. Hendry, S. Kippax. (2006) Safe sex after post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV: Intentions, challenges and ambivalences in narratives of gay men. AIDS Care 18:8, 879-887
     

181. 181

     Margaret Wecker, Renee Ridzon, Susan M Graham, Ann Duerr. (2006) Strategies for global HIV prevention. Future Virology 1:6, 759-767
     

182. 182

     Christopher Kruse, Joshua Lane. Emergencies in the Dermatology Office. In: Roenigk's Dermatologic Surgery. CRC Press, 2006:103-109.
     

183. 183

     H Lucy Thomas, Susan Liebeschuetz, Delane Shingadia, Sarah Addiman, Alex Mellanby. (2006) Multiple Needle-Stick Injuries With Risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Exposure in a Primary School. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 25:10, 933-936
     

184. 184

     S. Raghavendran, H. S. Bagry, S. Leith, J. M. Budd. (2006) Needle stick injuries: a comparison of practice and attitudes in two UK District General Hospitals*. Anaesthesia 61:9, 867-872
     

185. 185

     David Gisselquist, Garance Upham, John J. Potterat. (2006) Efficiency of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission Through Injections and Other Medical Procedures: Evidence, Estimates, and Unfinished Business • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 27:9, 944-952
     

186. 186

     Nancy Fajman, Richelle Wright. (2006) Use of antiretroviral HIV post-exposure prophylaxis in sexually abused children and adolescents treated in an inner-city pediatric emergency department. Child Abuse & Neglect 30:8, 919-927
     

187. 187

     Magid Herida, Christine Larsen, Florence Lot, Anne Laporte, Jean-Claude Desenclos, Françoise F Hamers. (2006) Cost-effectiveness of HIV post-exposure prophylaxis in France. AIDS 20:13, 1753-1761
     

188. 188

     P.Th.L. van Wijk, M. Pelk-Jongen, C. Wijkmans, A. Voss, P.M. Schneeberger. (2006) Quality control for handling of accidental blood exposures. Journal of Hospital Infection 63:3, 268-274
     

189. 189

     Lewis Kanter. (2006) Accidental needle stick prevention: an important, costly, unsafe policy revisited. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 97:1, 7-9
     

190. 190

     Arni Raghavendrarao Raghuram, Subbiayan Kumar, Kathamuthu Balamurugan, Balasubramanian Arulmurugan, Perichiappan Sivakami. (2006) Coronary artery bypass graft in a human immunodeficiency virus positive patient. Indian Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 22:3, 191-193
     

191. 191

     Debbie Indyk, Sarit A. Golub. (2006) The Shifting Locus of Risk-Reduction. Social Work in Health Care 42:3-4, 112-132
     

192. 192

     Jeny Wegbreit, Stefano Bertozzi, Lisa M DeMaria, Nancy S Padian. (2006) Effectiveness of HIV prevention strategies in resource-poor countries: tailoring the intervention to the context. AIDS 20:9, 1217-1235
     

193. 193

     G. Pellissier, B. Miguéres, A. Tarantola, D. Abiteboul, I. Lolom, E. Bouvet. (2006) Risk of needlestick injuries by injection pens. Journal of Hospital Infection 63:1, 60-64
     

194. 194

     Cristiane Rapparini. (2006) Occupational HIV infection among health care workers exposed to blood and body fluids in Brazil. American Journal of Infection Control 34:4, 237-240
     

195. 195

     Rebecca F Baggaley, Marie-Claude Boily, Richard G White, Michel Alary. (2006) Risk of HIV-1 transmission for parenteral exposure and blood transfusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS 20:6, 805-812
     

196. 196

     Lisa Black. (2006) From Needlestick Statistic to Nurse Advocate. AJN, American Journal of Nursing 106:3, 64G-64I
     

197. 197

     Michael G. Worthington, John J. Ross, Ellen K. Bergeron. (2006) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Occupational HIV Exposure: Two Cases and a Literature Review • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 27:2, 215-217
     

198. 198

     C.G. Speight, A. Klufio, S.N. Kilonzo, C. Mbugua, E. Kuria, J.E. Bunn, M. Taegtmeyer. (2006) Piloting post-exposure prophylaxis in Kenya raises specific concerns for the management of childhood rape. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100:1, 14-18
     

199. 199

     Mehrdad Askarian, Zohreh Hashemi, Peyman Jaafari, Ojan Assadian. (2006) Knowledge About HIV Infection and Attitude of Nursing Staff Toward Patients With AIDS in Iran • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 27:1, 48-53
     

200. 200

     Karine Lacombe, Anne Daguenel-Nguyen, Véronique Lebeau, Laurent Fonquernie, Pierre-Marie Girard, Marie-Caroline Meyohas. (2006) Determinants of adherence to non-occupational post HIV exposure prophylaxis. AIDS 20:2, 291-294
     

201. 201

     D. Abiteboul. (2006) Risques infectieux professionnels pour le personnel de santé. EMC - Pathologie professionnelle et de l 'environnement 1:3, 1-13
     

202. 202

     Annette Prüss-Üstün, Elisabetta Rapiti, Yvan Hutin. (2005) Estimation of the global burden of disease attributable to contaminated sharps injuries among health-care workers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 48:6, 482-490
     

203. 203

     M. E. Roland, T. B. Neilands, M. R. Krone, M. H. Katz, K. Franses, R. M. Grant, M. P. Busch, F. M. Hecht, B. L. Shacklett, J. O. Kahn, J. D. Bamberger, T. J. Coates, M. A. Chesney, J. N. Martin. (2005) Seroconversion Following Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis against HIV. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41:10, 1507-1513
     

204. 204

     M. S. Cohen, A. D. M. Kashuba, C. Gay. (2005) HIV Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis: A Cautionary Note. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41:10, 1514-1516
     

205. 205

     Y. Yazdanpanah, G. De Carli, B. Migueres, F. Lot, M. Campins, C. Colombo, T. Thomas, S. Deuffic-Burban, M. H. Prevot, M. Domart, A. Tarantola, D. Abiteboul, P. Deny, S. Pol, J. C. Desenclos, V. Puro, E. Bouvet. (2005) Risk Factors for Hepatitis C Virus Transmission to Health Care Workers after Occupational Exposure: A European Case-Control Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41:10, 1423-1430
     

206. 206

     Kimberly Page-Shafer, Vonthanak Saphonn, Ly Penh Sun, Mean Chhi Vun, David A Cooper, John M Kaldor. (2005) HIV prevention research in a resource-limited setting: the experience of planning a trial in Cambodia. The Lancet 366:9495, 1499-1503
     

207. 207

     Fabiane El‐Far, Eduardo Alexandrino Servolo Medeiros, Carlos Teodoro Gasparoto, Ricardo Sobhie Diaz. (2005) Antiretroviral Drug Resistance Among Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Who Act as Sources or Potential Sources in Occupational Accidents Involving Healthcare Workers • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 26:9, 782-788
     

208. 208

     A. Mehta, C. Rodrigues, S. Ghag, P. Bavi, S. Shenai, F. Dastur. (2005) Needlestick injuries in a tertiary care centre in Mumbai, India. Journal of Hospital Infection 60:4, 368-373
     

209. 209

     Robert D. Schremmer, Douglas Swanson, Kathe Kraly. (2005) Human Immunodeficiency Virus Postexposure Prophylaxis in Child and Adolescent Victims of Sexual Assault. Pediatric Emergency Care 21:8, 502-506
     

210. 210

     Judith A. Linden, Paula Oldeg, Supriya D. Mehta, Kerry K. McCabe, Colleen LaBelle. (2005) HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in Sexual Assault: Current Practice and Patient Adherence to Treatment Recommendations in a Large Urban Teaching Hospital. Academic Emergency Medicine 12:7, 640-646
     

211. 211

     A. Tarantola, A. Koumaré, A. Rachline, P.S. Sow, M.B. Diallo, S. Doumbia, C. Aka, E. Ehui, G. Brücker, E. Bouvet, . (2005) A descriptive, retrospective study of 567 accidental blood exposures in healthcare workers in three West African countries. Journal of Hospital Infection 60:3, 276-282
     

212. 212

     T BOYLES. (2005) Post-exposure prophylaxis. Medicine 33:6, 32-33
     

213. 213

     A Winston, J McAllister, J Amin, DA Cooper, A Carr. (2005) The use of a triple nucleoside-nucleotide regimen for nonoccupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis. HIV Medicine 6:3, 191-197
     

214. 214

     M??rcia Teixeira Garcia, Rosely Moralez Figueiredo, Maria Luiza Moretti, M??riangela Ribeiro Resende, Alo??sio J. Bedoni, Priscila Maria O. Papaiordanou. (2005) Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual Assaults: A Prospective Cohort Study. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 32:4, 214-219
     

215. 215

     Henrike Körner, Olympia Hendry, Susan Kippax. (2005) It's not just condoms: Social contexts of unsafe sex in gay men's narratives of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV. Health, Risk & Society 7:1, 47-62
     

216. 216

     TN Young, FJ Arens, GE Kennedy, JW Laurie, GW Rutherford, Taryn Young. Antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for occupational HIV exposure. In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2005.
     

217. 217

     Jeffrey D Klausner. AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Disease Prevention and Control. In: The AIDS Pandemic. Elsevier, 2005:110-136.
     

218. 218

     Myron S Cohen, Mina C Hosseinipour. HIV Treatment Meets Prevention. In: The AIDS Pandemic. Elsevier, 2005:137-161.
     

219. 219

     Mitchell H. Katz, Julie Louise Gerberding. (2004) Management of occupational and nonoccupational postexposure HIV prophylaxis. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 1:4, 159-165
     

220. 220

     Yuchi C. Chang, Stephen K. Tyring. (2004) Therapy of HIV infection. Dermatologic Therapy 17:6, 449-464
     

221. 221

     Yichuan Wang, Steven S. Kim, Ding Lu, Xue Juan You, Steven Joye, Hung Fan, Christopher J. Miller. (2004) Use of a Replication-Defective Vector to Track Cells Initially Infected by SIV in Vivo : Infected Mononuclear Cells Rapidly Appear in the Draining Lymph Node after Intradermal Inoculation of Rhesus Monkeys. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 20:12, 1298-1305
     

222. 222

     Steven D Pinkerton, Jeffrey N Martin, Michelle E Roland, Mitchell H Katz, Thomas J Coates, James O Kahn. (2004) Cost-effectiveness of HIV postexposure prophylaxis following sexual or injection drug exposure in 96 metropolitan areas in the United States. AIDS 18:15, 2065-2073
     

223. 223

     Douglas Bowley, Andrew Kingsnorth. General Complications in General Surgical Procedures. In: Management of Laparoscopic Surgical Complications. CRC Press, 2004:9-41.
     

224. 224

     Ana Ceballos, Guadalupe Andreani, Silvia E. Gonzalez Ayala, Yamila Romer, Isabel Rimoldi, María Rosa Agosti, Liliana Martinez Peralta. (2004) Epidemiological and Molecular Evidence of Two Events of Father-to-Child HIV Type 1 Horizontal Transmission. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 20:8, 789-793
     

225. 225

     I. V. Bassett, K. A. Freedberg, R. P. Walensky. (2004) Two Drugs or Three? Balancing Efficacy, Toxicity, and Resistance in Postexposure Prophylaxis for Occupational Exposure to HIV. Clinical Infectious Diseases 39:3, 395-401
     

226. 226

     M. R. Sridhar, S. Boopathi, Rakesh Lodha, S. K. Kabra. (2004) Standard precautions and post exposure prophylaxis for preventing infections. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics 71:7, 617-625
     

227. 227

     Suzanne El Sayegh, Marla J. Keller, Shirish Huprikar, Barbara Murphy. (2004) Solid organ transplantation in HIV-infected recipients. Pediatric Transplantation 8:3, 214-221
     

228. 228

     Regis Kreitchmann, Sandra Costa Fuchs, Theodoro Suffert, Gisele Preussler. (2004) Perinatal HIV-1 transmission among low income women participants in the HIV/AIDS Control Program in Southern Brazil: a cohort study. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 111:6, 579-584
     

229. 229

     Ron A Otten, Debra R Adams, Caryn N Kim, Jennifer K Pullium, Tamela Sawyer, Eddie Jackson, Thomas M Folks, Sal Butera. (2004) Chronic HIV-2 infection protects against total CD4+ cell depletion and rapid disease progression induced by SHIV89.6p challenge. AIDS 18:8, 1127-1135
     

230. 230

     Joseph J. Schwerha. (2004) Occupational Medicine Forum. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 46:5, 510-513
     

231. 231

     Heidi M. Koenig, Chanannait Paisansathan, Ronald F. Albrecht, Elemer K. Zsigmond. (2004) Jet Injection of Local Anesthetic Decreases Pain of Arterial Cannulation in Awake Neurosurgical Patients. Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology 16:2, 156-159
     

232. 232

     Mauro Schechter, Regina F. do Lago, Aaron B. Mendelsohn, Ronaldo I. Moreira, Lawrence H. Moulton, Lee H. Harrison. (2004) Behavioral Impact, Acceptability, and HIV Incidence Among Homosexual Men With Access to Postexposure Chemoprophylaxis for HIV. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 35:5, 519-525
     

233. 233

     Dominique Rey, Catherine Marimoutou, Anne-Deborah Bouhnik, Rosemary Dray-Spira, France Lert, Yolande Obadia. (2004) Knowledge of HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in a Population of HIV-Positive Outpatients: Results of a French National Survey. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 35:4, 393-400
     

234. 234

     Jeffrey N Martin, Michelle E Roland, Torsten B Neilands, Melissa R Krone, Joshua D Bamberger, Robert P Kohn, Margaret A Chesney, Karena Franses, James O Kahn, Thomas J Coates, Mitchell H Katz. (2004) Use of postexposure prophylaxis against HIV infection following sexual exposure does not lead to increases in high-risk behavior. AIDS 18:5, 787-792
     

235. 235

     Anton Pozniak. (2004) Post-exposure prophylaxis for sexual exposure to HIV. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 17:1, 39-40
     

236. 236

     George P Schmid, Anne Buvé, Peter Mugyenyi, Geoff P Garnett, Richard J Hayes, Brian G Williams, Jesus Garcia Calleja, Kevin M De Cock, James A Whitworth, Saidi H Kapiga, Peter D Ghys, Catherine Hankins, Basia Zaba, Robert Heimer, J Ties Boerma. (2004) Transmission of HIV-1 infection in sub-Saharan Africa and effect of elimination of unsafe injections. The Lancet 363:9407, 482-488
     

237. 237

     Christiane Cordes, Arend Moll, Claudia Kuecherer, Ulrich Marcus. (2004) HIV transmission despite HIV post-exposure prophylaxis after non-occupational exposure. AIDS 18:3, 582-584
     

238. 238

     David L. Greene, Edward Akelman. (2004) A Technique for Reducing Splash Exposure During Pulsatile Lavage. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma 18:1, 41-42
     

239. 239

     Mark Hayter. (2004) Knowledge and Attitudes of Nurses Working in Sexual Health Clinics in the United Kingdom Toward Post-Sexual Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV Infection. Public Health Nursing 21:1, 66-72
     

240. 240

     Keith A. Marill. (2004) Advanced Statistics: Linear Regression, Part II: Multiple Linear Regression. Academic Emergency Medicine 11:1, 94-102
     

241. 241

     José AntonioIribarren, Pablo Labarga, Rafael Rubio, Juan Berenguer, JoséM. Miró, Antonio Antela, Juan González, Santiago Moreno, Julio Arrizabalaga, Lourdes Chamorro, Bonaventura Clotet, José M. Gatell, José López-Aldeguer, Esteban Martínez, Rosa Polo, Montserrat Tuset, Pompeyo Viciana, Juan Miguel Santamaría, José María Kindelán, Esteve Ribera, Ferrán Segura. (2004) Recomendaciones de GESIDA/Plan Nacional sobre el Sida respecto al tratamiento antirretroviral en pacientes adultos infectados por el VIH (octubre 2004). Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 22:10, 564-642
     

242. 242

     R. Bou, M. Peris, J. Perpiñán, A. Aguilar, P. Ramos. (2004) Low hepatitis B vaccine coverage among health care workers detected by a blood-borne exposure active surveillance programme. Vacunas 5:4, 79-82
     

243. 243

     María Jesús Hernández Navarrete, Magda Campins Martí, Elena Vanessa Martínez Sánchez, Francisca Ramos Pérez, Aurelia García de Codes Ilario, José Luis Arribas Llorente. (2004) Exposición ocupacional a sangre y material biológico en personal sanitario. Proyecto EPINETAC 1996-2000. Medicina Clínica 122:3, 81-86
     

244. 244

     M. Worthington. (2003) Antiretroviral Drug Resistance Testing: Potential Use following Nosocomial Exposure to HIV. Clinical Infectious Diseases 37:12, 1722-1723
     

245. 245

     Elyse Olshen, Cathryn L. Samples. (2003) Postexposure prophylaxis: an intervention to prevent human immunodeficiency virus infection in adolescents. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 15:4, 379-384
     

246. 246

     Sonya Osborne. (2003) Perceptions that Influence Occupational Exposure Reporting. AORN Journal 78:2, 262-272
     

247. 247

     H. Bredell, R. L. Crookes, A. du P. Heyns, B. D. Schoub, L. Morris. (2003) Molecular Investigation of Two Possible Cases of Accidental HIV-1 Transmission in South Africa. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 19:7, 613-617
     

248. 248

     David N Fisman, Anthony D Harris, Gary S Sorock, Murray A Mittleman. (2003) Sharps-related injuries in health care workers: a case-crossover study. The American Journal of Medicine 114:8, 688-694
     

249. 249

     T. K. Sreepada Rao. (2003) Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in End-Stage Renal Disease Patients. Seminars in Dialysis 16:3, 233-244
     

250. 250

     Tanya Schreibman, Gerald Friedland. (2003) Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Prevention: Strategies for Clinicians. Clinical Infectious Diseases 36:9, 1171-1176
     

251. 251

     Ben Marais, Mark Cotton. (2003) OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS IN PEDIATRICIANS: A PREVIOUSLY UNDESCRIBED HIGH RISK GROUP. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 22:4, 382-383
     

252. 252

     Fernand Bricout, Anne Moraillon, Philippe Sonntag, Pierre Hoerner, William Blackwelder, Stanley Plotkin. (2003) Virus-inhibiting surgical glove to reduce the risk of infection by enveloped viruses. Journal of Medical Virology 69:4, 538-545
     

253. 253

     Anita Palepu, Mark Tyndall, Benita Yip, Michael V. O'Shaughnessy, Robert S. Hogg, Julio S. G. Montaner. (2003) Impaired Virologic Response to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Associated With Ongoing Injection Drug Use. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:5, 522-526
     

254. 254

     J.C. Trim, T.S.J. Elliott. (2003) A review of sharps injuries and preventative strategies. Journal of Hospital Infection 53:4, 237-242
     

255. 255

     Lewis J. Kanter, Charles Siegel. (2003) Needle sticks and adverse outcomes in office-based allergy practices. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 90:4, 389-392
     

256. 256

     Y. Sunila Reddy, Angela Kashuba, John Gerber, Veronica Miller. (2003) Roundtable Report: Importance of Antiretroviral Drug Concentrations in Sanctuary Sites and Viral Reservoirs. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 19:3, 167-176
     

257. 257

     Gerberding , Julie Louise , . (2003) Occupational Exposure to HIV in Health Care Settings. New England Journal of Medicine 348:9, 826-833
     Full Text

258. 258

     Judith Steinberg. Postexposure Prophylaxis. In: Medical Management of Infectious Disease. CRC Press, 2003:787-806.
     

259. 259

     Charles J. Coté, Andrew G. Roth, Melissa Wheeler, Carolyn ter Rahe, Bronwyn R. Rae, Richard M. Dsida, H. J. Przybylo. (2003) Traditional Versus New Needle Retractable IV Catheters in Children: Are They Really Safer, and Whom Are They Protecting?. Anesthesia & Analgesia 96:2, 387-391
     

260. 260

     Francisco Alvarado‐Ramy, Elise M. Beltrami, Louise J. Short, Pamela U. Srivastava, Keith Henry, Meryl Mendelson, Julie L Gerberding, George L. Delclos, Scott Campbell, Robin Solomon, Rita Fahrner, David H Culver, David Bell, Denise M. Cardo, Mary E. Chamberland. (2003) A Comprehensive Approach to Percutaneous Injury Prevention During Phlebotomy: Results of a Multicenter Study, 1993–1995 • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 24:2, 97-104
     

261. 261

     Ann N. Do, Carol A. Ciesielski, Russ P. Metler, Teresa A. Hammett, Jianmin Li, Patricia L. Fleming. (2003) Occupationally Acquired Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: National Case Surveillance Data During 20 Years of the HIV Epidemic in the United States • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 24:2, 86-96
     

262. 262

     Meryl H. Mendelson, Bao Ying Lin‐Chen, Robin Solomon, Eileen Bailey, Gene Kogan, James Goldbold. (2003) Evaluation of a Safety Resheathable Winged Steel Needle for Prevention of Percutaneous Injuries Associated With Intravascular‐Access Procedures Among Healthcare Workers • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 24:2, 105-112
     

263. 263

     Charles J. Cot??, Andrew G. Roth, Melissa Wheeler, Carolyn ter Rahe, Bronwyn R. Rae, Richard M. Dsida, H. J. Przybylo. (2003) Traditional Versus New Needle Retractable IV Catheters in Children: Are They Really Safer, and Whom Are They Protecting?. Anesthesia & Analgesia 96:2, 387-391
     

264. 264

     Tommy Yen, Emmet B. Keeffe, Aijaz Ahmed. (2003) The Epidemiology of Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 36:1, 47-53
     

265. 265

     Stanley H. Weis, Judith D. Leschek. HIV Era Occupational Exposures and Risks. In: AIDS and Other Manifestations of HIV Infection. Elsevier, 2003:811-838.
     

266. 266

     Linda A. Chiarello, Adelisa L. Panlilio, Denise M. Cardo. Infection Control Considerations to Prevent HIV Transmission in Healthcare Settings. In: AIDS and Other Manifestations of HIV Infection. Elsevier, 2003:803-810.
     

267. 267

     Patricia L. Fleming. The Epidemiology of HIV and AIDS. In: AIDS and Other Manifestations of HIV Infection. Elsevier, 2003:3-29.
     

268. 268

     J.F. Hermieu, E. Bouvet, V. Ravery, V. Delmas, L. Boccon-Gibod. (2003) Manifestaciones urológicas de la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana. EMC - Urología 35:2, 1-10
     

269. 269

     M. Bernal Sprekelsen, J. Mosquera, G. Til Pérez, A. Sandiumenge, A. Cardesín Revilla, F. Sabater Mata De La Barata. (2003) Sinusitis en inmunodeprimidos. un estudio multicéntrico. Acta Otorrinolaringológica Española 54:3, 195-201
     

270. 270

     Jesús Almeda, Alejandro Allepuz, Betty-Germaine Simon, Juan Antonio Blasco, Anna Esteve, Jordi Casabona i Barbarà. (2003) Profilaxis postexposición al virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana no ocupacional. Conocimientos y prácticas de profesionales y grupos con conductas de riesgo. Medicina Clínica 121:9, 321-326
     

271. 271

     Mitchell H. Katz, Julie Louise Gerberding. (2002) Management of occupational and nonoccupational postexposure HIV prophylaxis. Current Infectious Disease Reports 4:6, 543-549
     

272. 272

     Kimberly Page Shafer, Judith A. Hahn, Paula J. Lum, Kristen Ochoa, Alison Graves, Andrew Moss. (2002) Prevalence and Correlates of HIV Infection Among Young Injection Drug Users in San Francisco. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 31:4, 422-431
     

273. 273

     Mark J. Sarno, Jo Bell, Steven V. Edelman. (2002) Pharmacokinetics and Glucodynamics of Rapid-, Short-, and Intermediate-Acting Insulins: Comparison of Jet Injection to Needle Syringe. Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics 4:6, 863-866
     

274. 274

     Brent M. Booker, Patrick F. Smith, Gene D. Morse. Universal Precautions and Post-exposure Prophylaxis for HIV. In: Encyclopedia of Clinical Pharmacy. Informa Healthcare, 2002:891-898.
     

275. 275

     Lawrence Corey. (2002) Challenges in Genital Herpes Simplex Virus Management. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 186:s1, S29-S33
     

276. 276

     Yven Van Herrewege, Lieve Penne, Chris Vereecken, Katrien Fransen, Guido van der Groen, Luc Kestens, Jan Balzarini, Guido Vanham. (2002) Activity of Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors in Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells: A Possible in Vitro Model for Postexposure Prophylaxis of Sexual HIV Transmission. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 18:15, 1091-1102
     

277. 277

     Donald A. Goldmann. (2002) Blood-borne pathogens and nosocomial infections. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 110:2, S21-S26
     

278. 278

     Judith H. Aberle, Brigitte Schmied, Norbert Vetter, Elisabeth Puchhammer‐Stöckl. (2002) Absence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection after Intentional Injection of Infected Blood. Clinical Infectious Diseases 35:2, e26-e28
     

279. 279

     GM McCarthy, CS Ssali, H Bednarsh, J Jorge, K Wangrangsimakul, K Page-Shafer. (2002) Transmission of HIV in the dental clinic and elsewhere. Oral Diseases 8:s2, 126-135
     

280. 280

     Elise M. Beltrami, Chi‐Cheng Luo, Nicolas de la Torre, Denise M. Cardo. (2002) Transmission of Drug‐Resistant HIV After an Occupational Exposure Despite Postexposure Prophylaxis With a Combination Drug Regimen • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 23:6, 345-348
     

281. 281

     Mark Russi. (2002) HIV and AIDS in the Workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 44:6, 495-502
     

282. 282

     Mina Hosseinipour, Myron S. Cohen, Pietro L. Vernazza, Angela D. M. Kashuba. (2002) Can Antiretroviral Therapy Be Used to Prevent Sexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1?. Clinical Infectious Diseases 34:10, 1391-1395
     

283. 283

     Enrique Casalino, Dilek Sapmaz, Arnaud Tarantola, Anika Fichelle, Elisabeth Bouvet. (2002) Is Potential HIV Exposure Considered to Be a Medical Emergency?. Academic Emergency Medicine 9:3, 257-258
     

284. 284

     James Robert Garb. (2002) One-Year Study of Occupational Human Immunodeficiency Virus Postexposure Prophylaxis. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 44:3, 265-270
     

285. 285

     M Arai. (2002) Is AZT/3TC therapy effective against FIV infection or immunopathogenesis?. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 85:3-4, 189-204
     

286. 286

     Anne Laporte, Nathalie Jourdan, Elisabeth Bouvet, Franck Lamontagne, Josiane Pillonel, Jean-Claude Desenclos. (2002) Post-exposure prophylaxis after non-occupational HIV exposure: impact of recommendations on physicians’ experiences and attitudes. AIDS 16:3, 397-405
     

287. 287

     Kenneth H. Katz, Mary E. Maloney. (2002) Surgical Pearl: Safely recapping needles during surgery. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 46:2, 294-296
     

288. 288

     Robert H. Lutz, Darrell Carlton, Shawn F. Taylor. (2002) HIV P OSTEXPOSURE P ROPHYLAXIS IN THE R EMOTE P REHOSPITAL E NVIRONMENT. Prehospital Emergency Care 6:2, 232-235
     

289. 289

     &NA;. (2002) Postexposure prophylaxis for occupational exposure to HIV has its risks. Drugs & Therapy Perspectives 18:1, 17-20
     

290. 290

     Rafael Rubio, Juan Berenguer, José M. Miró, Antonio Antela, José Antonio Iribarren, Juan González, Luis Guerra, Santiago Moreno, Julio Arrizabalaga, Buenaventura Clotet, José M. Gatell, Fernando Laguna, Esteban Martínez, Francisco Parras, Juan Miguel Santamaría, Montserrat Tuset, Pompeyo Viciana. (2002) Recomendaciones de GESIDA/Plan Nacional sobre el Sida respecto al tratamiento antirretroviral en pacientes adultos infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana en el año 2002. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 20:6, 244-303
     

291. 291

     Jesús Almeda, Jordi Casabona, Alejandro Allepuz, Felipe García-Alcaide, Jorge del Romero, Cristina Tural, Joan Colom, Ferrán Bolao, Magda Campins, Ángela Domínguez, Lluís Force, Albert Giménez, Luis Guerra-Romero. (2002) Recomendaciones para la profilaxis postexposición no ocupacional al VIH. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 20:8, 391-400
     

292. 292

     Rafael Castell Salvá, Matías Tomás Salvá. (2002) Profilaxis antirretroviral en una trabajadora hospitalaria gestante. Medicina Clínica 119:2, 76-77
     

293. 293

     David M. Huebner, Mary A. Gerend. (2001) The relation between beliefs about drug treatments for HIV and sexual risk behavior in gay and bisexual men. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 23:4, 304-312
     

294. 294

     VINCENZO PURO, GABRIELLA CARLI, PAOLA SCOGNAMIGLIO, ROLANDO PORCASI, GIUSEPPE IPPOLITO, . (2001) Risk of HIV and Other Blood-Borne Infections in the Cardiac Setting. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 946:1, 291-309
     

295. 295

     G.F. Franklin, K. Gray, D. Nathwani. (2001) Provision of Drugs for Post-exposure Prophylaxis of HIV for Medical Students on Overseas Electives. Journal of Infection 43:3, 191-194
     

296. 296

     G. Kocjan, R. Miller. (2001) The cytology of HIV-induced immunosuppression. Changing pattern of disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Cytopathology 12:5, 281-296
     

297. 297

     David Gisselquist. (2001) Risk Factors for HIV Among Northern Thai Women: Testing Hypotheses or Repeating Assumptions?. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 27:4, 414-415
     

298. 298

     Laura M. Lee, David K. Henderson. (2001) Emerging viral infections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 14:4, 467-480
     

299. 299

     David Gisselquist. (2001) Risk Factors for HIV Among Northern Thai Women: Testing Hypotheses or Repeating Assumptions?. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 27:4, 414-415
     

300. 300

     Ülgen Semaye Fideli, Susan A. Allen, Rosemary Musonda, Stan Trask, Beatrice H. Hahn, Heidi Weiss, Joseph Mulenga, Francis Kasolo, Sten H. Vermund, Grace M. Aldrovandi. (2001) Virologic and Immunologic Determinants of Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Africa. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 17:10, 901-910
     

301. 301

     ROXANA B. FERREIRO, KENT A. SEPKOWITZ. (2001) Management of Needlestick Injuries. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 44:2, 276-288
     

302. 302

     Marianne Cloeren, Trish M. Perl. (2001) Occupationally Acquired Infections and the Healthcare Worker *. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice 10:5, 261-270
     

303. 303

     Bernadette Stringer, Claire Infante-Rivard, James Hanley. (2001) Quantifying and Reducing the Risk of Bloodborne Pathogen Exposure. AORN Journal 73:6, 1132-1146
     

304. 304

     Amy J. Behrman, Frances S. Shofer, Judith Green-McKenzie. (2001) Trends in Bloodborne Pathogen Exposure and Follow-Up at an Urban Teaching Hospital: 1987 to 1997. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 43:4, 370-376
     

305. 305

     Vincenzo Puro, Gabriella De Carli, Nicola Petrosillo, Giuseppe Ippolito, . (2001) Risk of Exposure to Bloodborne Infection for Italian Healthcare Workers, by Job Category and Work Area • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 22:4, 206-210
     

306. 306

     T. C. Porco, T. J. Aragon, S. E. Fernyak, S. H. Cody, D. J. Vugia, M. H. Katz, D. R. Bangsberg. (2001) Risk of infection from needle reuse at a phlebotomy center. American Journal of Public Health 91:4, 636-638
     

307. 307

     Francis Robicsek, Alexander A. Fokin, Thomas N. Masters. (2001) Where does the lymph flow?. International Journal of Angiology 10:2, 136-141
     

308. 308

     Sandra Fournier, Anne Maillard, Jean-Michel Molina. (2001) Failure of postexposure prophylaxis after sexual exposure to HIV. AIDS 15:3, 430
     

309. 309

     Susan E. Beekmann, Thomas E. Vaughn, Kimberly D. McCoy, Kristi J. Ferguson, James C. Torner, Robert F. Woolson, Bradley N. Doebbeling. (2001) Hospital Bloodborne Pathogens Programs: Program Characteristics and Blood and Body Fluid Exposure Rates • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 22:2, 73-82
     

310. 310

     V.S. Richard, J. Kenneth, P. Ramaprabha, H. Kirupakaran, G.M. Chandy. (2001) Impact of introduction of sharps containers and of education programmes on the pattern of needle stick injuries in a tertiary care centre in India. Journal of Hospital Infection 47:2, 163-165
     

311. 311

     Samuel C. Hughes. (2001) Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Other Occupational Exposures: Risk Management. ASA Refresher Courses in Anesthesiology 29:1, 147-157
     

312. 312

     B.J. Poiesz, L.D. Papsidero, G. Ehrlich, M. Sherman, S. Dube, M. Poiesz, K. Dillon, F.W. Ruscetti, D. Slamon, C. Fang, A. Williams, D. Duggan, J. Glaser, A. Gottlieb, J. Goldberg, L. Ratner, P. Phillips, T. Han, A. Friedman-Kien, F. Siegal, K. Rai, A. Sawitsky, L.W.A. Sheremata, H. Dosik, C. Cunningham, R. Montagna. (2001) Prevalence of HTLV-I-associated T-cell lymphoma. American Journal of Hematology 66:1, 32-38
     

313. 313

     Laura M. Lee, David K. Henderson. (2001) Tolerability of Postexposure Antiretroviral Prophylaxis for Occupational Exposures to HIV. Drug Safety 24:8, 587-597
     

314. 314

     P.R. Grime, L. Ris, C. Binns, J.R. Carruthers, S. Williams. (2001) Pan-Thames Survey of Occupational Exposure to HIV and the Use of Post-exposure Prophylaxis in 71 NHS Trusts. Journal of Infection 42:1, 27-32
     

315. 315

     Thomas W. Mc Closkey. Flow cytometry for evaluation and investigation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Elsevier, 2001:567-592.
     

316. 316

     Michael E. Blocker, Myron S. Cohen. (2000) BIOLOGIC APPROACHES TO THE PREVENTION OF SEXUAL TRANSMISSION OF HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 14:4, 983-999
     

317. 317

     Matthew J. Kuehnert, Denise M. Cardo. (2000) Infections associated with health-care personnel: Vaccine-preventable diseases and bloodborne pathogens. Current Infectious Disease Reports 2:6, 475-483
     

318. 318

     Susan A. Wang, Adelisa L. Panlilio, Peggy A. Doi, Alice D. White, Michael Stek, Alfred Saah, . (2000) Experience of Healthcare Workers Taking Postexposure Prophylaxis After Occupational HIV Exposures: Findings of the HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Registry • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 21:12, 780-785
     

319. 319

     Mark Russi, Martha Buitrago, Joseph Goulet, Diane Calello, James Perlotto, Dorothy van Rhijn, Esther Nash, Gerald Friedland, Walter Hierholzer. (2000) Antiretroviral Prophylaxis of Health Care Workers at Two Urban Medical Centers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 42:11, 1092-1100
     

320. 320

     Scott Kellerman, Pascale Wortley, Patricia Fleming. (2000) The changing epidemic of HIV. Current Infectious Disease Reports 2:5, 457-465
     

321. 321

     Joseph P McGowan, Sanjiv S Shah. (2000) Management of HIV infection during pregnancy. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 12:5, 357-367
     

322. 322

     Dewey C. Scheid, Robert M. Hamm, Kevin W. Stevens. (2000) Cost Effectiveness of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Postexposure Prophylaxis for Healthcare Workers. PharmacoEconomics 18:4, 355-368
     

323. 323

     Roland Clayton Merchant. (2000) Nonoccupational HIV postexposure prophylaxis: A new role for the emergency department. Annals of Emergency Medicine 36:4, 366-375
     

324. 324

     MARK J. SARNO, ERICH BLASE, NELLY GALINDO, ROBERTO RAMIREZ, CARL L. SCHIRMER, DANIEL F. TRUJILLO-JUAREZ. (2000) Clinical immunogenicity of measles, mumps and rubella vaccine delivered by the Injex jet injector: comparison with standard syringe injection. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 19:9, 839-842
     

325. 325

     Christian Rabaud, Agnes Zanea, Jean Marie Mur, Marie Francoise Blech, Didier Dazy, Thierry May, Francis Guillemin. (2000) Occupational Exposure to Blood: Search for a Relation Between Personality and Behavior • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 21:9, 564-574
     

326. 326

     Cherie L. Holodnick, Violet H. Barkauskas. (2000) Reducing Percutaneous Injuries in the OR by Educational Methods. AORN Journal 72:3, 461-476
     

327. 327

     Vincenzo Puro, Giuseppe Calcagno, Marco Anselmo, Gisella Benvenuto, Daria Trabattoni, Mario Clerici, Giuseppe Ippolito. (2000) Transient Detection of Plasma HIV‐1 RNA During Postexposure Prophylaxis • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 21:8, 529-531
     

328. 328

     Roger Le Grand, Bruno Vaslin, J??rome Larghero, Olivier Neidez, Hugues Thiebot, Pierre Sellier, Pascal Clayette, Nathalie Dereuddre-Bosquet, Dominique Dormont. (2000) Post-exposure prophylaxis with highly active antiretroviral therapy could not protect macaques from infection with SIV/HIV chimera. AIDS 14:12, 1864-1866
     

329. 329

     Francis Robicsek, Alexander A Fokin, Thomas N Masters, Joseph W Cook. (2000) Inhibition of needlestick-induced simulated viremia by local measures. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery 70:1, 229-233
     

330. 330

     ALEXANDER A. FOKIN, FRANCIS ROBICSEK, THOMAS N. MASTERS, GEERT W. SCHMID-SCHÖNBEIN, SCERIA H. JENKINS. (2000) Propagation of Viral-Size Particles in Lymph and Blood after Subcutaneous Inoculation. Microcirculation 7:3, 193-200
     

331. 331

     Evan Wood, Martin T. Schechter, Mark W. Tyndall, Julio S. G. Montaner, Michael V. O'Shaughnessy, Robert S. Hogg. (2000) Antiretroviral medication use among injection drug users: two potential futures. AIDS 14:9, 1229-1235
     

332. 332

     Claude McFarlane, Anthony N. Passannante. (2000) Transmission of viral disease in the operating room setting. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology 13:3, 355-358
     

333. 333

     Omar Bagasra, Muhammad Amjad. (2000) Applied Immunohistochemistry 8:2, 133-146
     

334. 334

     Craig R. Waldo, Ronald D. Stall, Thomas J. Coates. (2000) Is offering post-exposure prevention for sexual exposures to HIV related to sexual risk behavior in gay men?. AIDS 14:8, 1035-1039
     

335. 335

     Chaiporn Bhadrakom, R. J. Simonds, Joanne V. Mei, Suvanna Asavapiriyanont, Varaporn Sangtaweesin, Nirun Vanprapar, Katy H. P. Moore, Nancy L. Young, W. Harry Hannon, Timothy D. Mastro, Nathan Shaffer. (2000) Oral zidovudine during labor to prevent perinatal HIV transmission, Bangkok: tolerance and zidovudine concentration in cord blood. AIDS 14:5, 509-516
     

336. 336

     David A. Hawkins. (2000) Postexposure to HIV prophylaxis. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 13:1, 53-57
     

337. 337

     Gregory J. Moran. (2000) Emergency department management of blood and body fluid exposures. Annals of Emergency Medicine 35:1, 47-62
     

338. 338

     Mary L. Kamb, Pascale M. Wortley. Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS in Women. In: Women and Health. Elsevier, 2000:336-351.
     

339. 339

     Rita Murri, Massimo Fantoni, Cosmo Del Borgo, Immacolata Izzi, Raffaella Visonà, Fredy Suter, Maria Cristina Banfi, Enrico Barchi, Nicoletta Orchi, Oliviero Bosco, Albert W. Wu. (1999) Intravenous Drug Use, Relationship With Providers, and Stage of HIV Disease Influence the Prescription Rates of Protease Inhibitors. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22:5, 461
     

340. 340

     Rita Murri, Massimo Fantoni, Cosmo Del Borgo, Immacolata Izzi, Raffaella Visonà, Fredy Suter, Maria Cristina Banfi, Enrico Barchi, Nicoletta Orchi, Oliviero Bosco, Albert W. Wu. (1999) Intravenous Drug Use, Relationship With Providers, and Stage of HIV Disease Influence the Prescription Rates of Protease Inhibitors. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22:5, 461
     

341. 341

     Yu-Hung Kuo, Jean-Noël Fabiani, Ali Si Mohamed, Jean Paul A. Couetil, Michel Lévy, Laurent Gutmann, Alain F. Carpentier, Laurent Bélec. (1999) Decreasing occupational risk related to blood-borne viruses in cardiovascular surgery in Paris, France. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery 68:6, 2267-2272
     

342. 342

     D.K. Henderson. (1999) Weighing the consequence of doing nothing versus those of doing something: post-exposure chemoprophylaxis for occupational exposures to HIV. Journal of Hospital Infection 43, S225-S233
     

343. 343

     Zelalem Temesgen, Alan J. Wright. (1999) Antiretrovirals. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 74:12, 1284-1301
     

344. 344

     Francoise Roudot‐Thoraval, Olivier Montagne, Annette Schaeffer, Marie‐Laure Dubreuil‐Lemaire, Daniele Hachard, Isabelle Durand‐Zaleski. (1999) Costs and Benefits of Measures to Prevent Needlestick Injuries in a University Hospital • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 20:9, 614-617
     

345. 345

     Zelalem Temesgen. (1999) Overview of HIV infection. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 83:1, 1-7
     

346. 346

     Ronnie D’Amico, Ligia A. Pinto, Peter Meyer, Alan L. Landay, Alan A. Harris, Mario Clerici, Jay A. Berzofsky, Gene M. Shearer, Harold A. Kessler. (1999) Effect of Zidovudine Postexposure Prophylaxis on the Development of HIV‐Specific Cytotoxic T‐Lymphocyte Responses in HIV‐Exposed Healthcare Workers • . Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 20:6, 428-430
     

347. 347

     Arnold J. Berry. (1999) HIV infection: problems with patientsʼ anaesthetic management and healthcare workersʼ exposure. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology 12:3, 359-366
     

348. 348

     Peter G. Duncan. (1999) Risks and benefits of the practice of anesthesiology. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d'anesthésie 46:S5, R131-R144
     

349. 349

     JEFFREY LAURENCE. (1999) Post-Exposure Prophylaxis: A New Form of Prevention?. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 13:5, 261-263
     

350. 350

     J Bamberger. (1999) Postexposure prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection following sexual assault. The American Journal of Medicine 106:3, 323-326
     

351. 351

     Elemer K Zsigmond, Patrick Darby, Heidi M Koenig, Eric F Goll. (1999) Painless intravenous catheterization by intradermal jet injection of lidocaine: a randomized trial. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 11:2, 87-94
     

352. 352

     Jürgen Kurt Rockstroh. (1999) Epidemiologie und Transmission der HIV-Infektion. Pharmazie in unserer Zeit 28:2, 95-101
     

353. 353

     Bernhard Parschalk, Heidemarie Pernerstorfer-Schön. (1999) Human immunodeficiency virus: post-exposure prophylaxis. Current Opinion in Urology 9:1, 51-55
     

354. 354

     Ulrich Spengler, Jürgen K. Rockstroh. (1998) Hepatitis C in the patient with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Hepatology 29:6, 1023-1030
     

355. 355

     David M. Aboulafia. (1998) Occupational Exposure to Human Immunodeficiency Virus: What Healthcare Providers Should Know. Cancer Practice 6:6, 310-317
     

356. 356

     John Meyer. (1998) Prophylaxis for Health Care Workers. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine 40:7, 585
     

357. 357

     A. J. C. Reid, R. F. Miller, G. I. Kocjan. (1998) Diagnostic utility of fine needle aspiration (FNA) cytology in HIV-infected patients with lymphadenopathy. Cytopathology 9:4, 230-239
     

358. 358

     S Laperche, P Moreau, J Lair, A M. Couroucé. (1998) Two successive HIV contaminations from subjects in the window period. AIDS 12:11, 1397-1398
     

359. 359

     Maria Denise Mileno, Frank J. Bia. (1998) THE COMPROMISED TRAVELER. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 12:2, 369-412
     

360. 360

     Henderson , David K. , . (1997) Postexposure Treatment of HIV — Taking Some Risks for Safety's Sake. New England Journal of Medicine 337:21, 1542-1543
     Full Text