Original Article
Residential Exposure to Magnetic Fields and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia in Children
N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1-8July 3, 1997
- Abstract
Background
Previous studies found associations between childhood leukemia and surrogate indicators of exposure to magnetic fields (the power-line classification scheme known as “wire coding“), but not between childhood leukemia and measurements of 60-Hz residential magnetic fields.
Methods
We enrolled 638 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) who were under 15 years of age and were registered with the Children's Cancer Group and 620 controls in a study of residential exposure to magnetic fields generated by nearby power lines. In the subjects' current and former homes, data collectors blinded to the subjects' health status measured magnetic fields for 24 hours in each child's bedroom and for 30 seconds in three or four other rooms and outside the front door. A computer algorithm assigned wire-code categories, based on the distance and configuration of nearby power lines, to the subjects' main residences (for 416 case patients and 416 controls) and to those where the family had lived during the mother's pregnancy with the subject (for 230 case patients and 230 controls).
Results
The risk of childhood ALL was not linked to summary time-weighted average residential magnetic-field levels, categorized according to a priori criteria. The odds ratio for ALL was 1.24 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.86 to 1.79) at exposures of 0.200 μT or greater as compared with less than 0.065 μT. The risk of ALL was not increased among children whose main residences were in the highest wire-code category (odds ratio as compared with the lowest category, 0.88; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.48 to 1.63). Furthermore, the risk was not significantly associated with either residential magnetic-field levels or the wire codes of the homes mothers resided in when pregnant with the subjects.
Conclusions
Our results provide little evidence that living in homes characterized by high measured time-weighted average magnetic-field levels or by the highest wire-code category increases the risk of ALL in children.
Media in This Article
Table 1
Characteristics of 629 Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (Case Patients) and 619 Controls with Measurements of 60-Hz Residential Magnetic-Field Levels and 408 Matched Case–Control Pairs of Children with Stable Residences and Wire-Coding Data.Table 2
Risk of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia According to Time-Weighted Average Summary Levels of 60-Hz Residential Magnetic Fields in the Unmatched and Matched Analysis.Article Activity
- Article
Results of investigations of a possible link between childhood leukemia and residential exposures to magnetic fields at a frequency of 50 to 60 Hz from nearby power lines have been inconsistent.1-9 In a recent comprehensive report,10 consistent two- to threefold excesses of leukemia among U.S. children were associated with surrogate indicators of residential magnetic-field exposure,1,3,5 such as the Wertheimer–Leeper power-line classification scheme,1,3,11 hereafter designated “wire coding.” These surrogate indicators use visual assessments of power lines near homes to estimate magnetic-field measurements within the homes. Wire coding includes characteristics of power lines such as distance from the home and physical configuration. An excess incidence of leukemia in Swedish children was linked to estimated electrical current flow, derived from historical records of power companies and the configuration of high-voltage power lines close to homes where the children lived at the time of diagnosis.6 However, the risk of childhood leukemia has not been correlated with residential measurements of magnetic fields made shortly after the time of diagnosis.3-6
The shortcomings of earlier epidemiologic studies have been extensively reviewed.10,12-15 Inconsistent findings, discrepancies between results based on proxy estimates and those based on direct magnetic-field measurements, and the absence of supportive laboratory evidence or a plausible biologic mechanism of disease causation10,16 have resulted in uncertainties about the relation, if any, between childhood leukemia and exposure to magnetic fields. Widespread concern and the limitations of previous studies led us to evaluate residential exposure to magnetic fields in a comprehensive case–control study of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in childhood, conducted by the Children's Cancer Group.
Methods
Subjects
The methods of this study are described in detail elsewhere.17 Briefly, a group of the 1914 children with ALL and the 1987 controls participating in a nationwide telephone-interview study conducted by the Children's Cancer Group was eligible for the assessment of residential exposure to magnetic fields. Eligible case children received a diagnosis of ALL before the age of 15 years, between 1989 and 1994, and were registered with the Children's Cancer Group. Eligible controls were selected by random-digit telephone dialing18 and were individually matched to the children with ALL according to the first eight digits of the telephone number, age, and race. Eligibility for the assessment of magnetic-field exposure was restricted to the 851 case patients and the 825 controls who participated in the initial telephone interview (representing 96 percent and 75 percent, respectively, of those who were eligible) and who resided in one of nine states (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin) on the reference date, defined as the date of diagnosis of ALL for each case patient. The same date was assigned to the case patient's matched control for the purpose of determining which children's residences would have magnetic-field assessments. Mothers of 98 percent of the children with ALL (832 case patients) and 97 percent of the controls (n = 801) who responded to the telephone interview also provided lifetime residential histories for the subjects. Because we did not evaluate 65 of these case patients and 76 of the controls further, once the sample-size goals had been achieved, 767 case patients and 725 controls were eligible for measurements of residential magnetic fields.17
For each child under the age of five years, we attempted to measure magnetic fields in all the homes the subject had lived in for at least six months and required that at least 70 percent of the child's life have been spent in the measured homes. For each child over the age of five, we measured one or two homes, provided that the child had lived in them for at least 70 percent of the five years immediately preceding the reference date. We chose the five-year reference period closest to the date of diagnosis because of hypothesized cancer-promoter effects, since no evidence exists that the low strength of residential magnetic fields can induce genotoxic effects.10,16
Overall, 78 percent of the eligible patients participated (83 percent participation among the 767 case patients eligible for residential measurements times 98 percent participation in the lifetime residential history times 96 percent participation in the initial telephone interview), as did 63 percent of the controls (86 percent participation among the 725 eligible controls times 97 percent and 75 percent, respectively), resulting in a final study population of 638 case patients and 620 controls. Reasons for nonparticipation included refusal by the child's parents, inability to locate the child or too many changes of residence, lack of approval by the hospital institutional review board for the magnetic-field measurements, and refusal by the child's physician (this was a factor only for the children with cancer). Some subjects could not be included because the current occupants of subjects' former homes denied permission for the magnetic-field measurements.
We ascertained the residential wire-code category for a subgroup of the pairs of children with ALL and their controls who were eligible for magnetic-field measurements. We restricted assessment of wire codes to pairs in which both the case patient and the matched control had “residential stability” — that is, both paired members had lived in one home for at least 70 percent of the reference period (this residence is hereafter designated the “main residence”). Among the 428 such residentially stable pairs identified, 12 pairs were excluded because the technician could not locate the home or accurately diagram nearby power lines at one of the residences. Technicians assessed most homes eligible for wire-code classification even if they could not obtain permission to measure magnetic fields, since access to the residence or the surrounding property was not necessary for wire coding. To evaluate the risk of ALL associated with the subject's residential wire code during the mother's pregnancy with the subject, technicians evaluated residences in which the subject's family had resided for at least five months during the index pregnancy (“residence during pregnancy”) for all subjects under the age of three years (151 matched case–control pairs) and for those whose homes were assessed as part of the wire coding of the main residence, for a total of 230 case–control pairs.
Measurement Protocol
Magnetic-Field Measurements
Technicians blinded to the subjects' case or control status used an Emdex-C meter (Electric Field Measurements, West Stockbridge, Mass.), which measures extremely-low-frequency magnetic fields (40 to 300 Hz, a range that includes 50-Hz and 60-Hz levels, frequencies evaluated in prior epidemiologic studies) with a three-axis induction-coil sensor.17 Derived from two personal-exposure studies,19,20 the standardized measurement protocol included a 24-hour measurement in the child's bedroom (with the meter placed under or adjacent to the bed); 30-second measurements in the center of the child's bedroom, the family room, the kitchen, and the room in which the mother slept during the index pregnancy; and a 30-second outdoor measurement made within 0.9 m (3 ft) of the front door.17
Wire Coding
Technicians (who were unaware of whether a case patient or a control currently or formerly lived in each residence evaluated) drew diagrams and recorded systematically the distance from the home of any overhead power lines within 46 m (150 ft) of the residence, including transmission lines, thick and thin three-phase primary-distribution lines (which carry electric power from substations to surrounding neighborhoods), any open (with separated wires) or spun (with wires bound together) secondary distribution lines, and first-span secondary distribution lines.17 On the basis of the diagrams, a computer algorithm assigned a wire code to each residence according to the five-category Wertheimer–Leeper classification1,3,11 and the modified three-category Kaune–Savitz scheme.21 As in earlier studies,3,5 we found that measured magnetic-field levels (i.e., the arithmetic means of 24-hour measurements from 858 residences) rose with increasing Wertheimer–Leeper1,3,11 and Kaune–Savitz21 wire-code categories (unpublished data).
Statistical Analysis
Magnetic-Field Measurements
For each eligible residence, a summary magnetic-field level was calculated from a weighted average of the room measurements. The weights were derived from the personal-exposure study and based on the estimated time spent by children according to age.17,19,20 If measurements were not obtained in all rooms, then the weighted average was based on a standardized hierarchy of measurements.17 The primary measure of exposure for each subject was an average of the summary level for all the eligible measured homes, weighted according to the duration of residence. We used odds ratios and 95 percent confidence intervals to estimate the risk of ALL.22 Before undertaking any case–control comparisons, we identified four exposure categories for residential magnetic-field levels (<0.065 μT [the reference group], 0.065 to 0.099 μT, 0.100 to 0.199 μT, and >0.200 μT), based on the distribution of measurements in the control homes. These categories were similar to those used in earlier investigations.3,5,6 We calculated results using unmatched analysis as well as analysis of matched case–control pairs.22
We used stratified and logistic-regression analyses to explore the effects of age at the reference date, sex, race (though the very small number of nonwhites limited this evaluation), socioeconomic status (indicated by family income, the mother's and father's educational level and occupation, home ownership, and family size), temporal factors (year, season, and time of day when the measurements were made), demographic characteristics (degree of urbanization and type of residence), and dose–response relations using continuous measurements.22 We also evaluated birth order, birth weight, the mother's age at the child's delivery, and medical x-ray studies during pregnancy as potential confounding factors. We excluded nine case patients and one control who had Down's syndrome, since this disorder has been linked to 10-to-40-fold increases in the risk of acute leukemia.23 We included 629 case patients and 619 controls in the final unmatched analysis, and 463 case–control pairs in the matched analysis.
Wire Coding
Because the relation between power-line configurations and magnetic-field strength may vary geographically,5,24 we retained the matched design of the initial nationwide phase of the study for the wire coding of the main residence. The Wertheimer–Leeper wire-code categories used in the analysis include underground (buried) power lines plus very-low-current configuration (the reference group), ordinary low-current configuration, ordinary high-current configuration, and very-high-current configuration.1,3,11 The modified Kaune–Savitz wire-code categories were as follows: low (the reference group), medium, and high.21 We used matched-pairs analysis to evaluate the risk of ALL in relation to the wire-code category of the main residence (including 408 case–control pairs, after the exclusion of subjects with Down's syndrome) and the residence during pregnancy (a total of 225 pairs, including 149 pairs of subjects under the age of three, after the exclusion of subjects with Down's syndrome); conditional logistic regression was used to control for socioeconomic and demographic factors and other potential confounders.22
Results
Characteristics of the Subjects
The controls were similar to the case patients (Table 1Table 1
Characteristics of 629 Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (Case Patients) and 619 Controls with Measurements of 60-Hz Residential Magnetic-Field Levels and 408 Matched Case–Control Pairs of Children with Stable Residences and Wire-Coding Data.), except for their higher total family income (P<0.001). ALL was not associated with the mother's age at delivery of the subject, the number of children in the family, the birth order of the subject (data not shown), the type of residence, the degree of urbanization, home ownership, or the interval between the reference date and the date of the measurements (data not shown). All estimates of risk have been adjusted for the age of the subject at the reference date, the subject's sex, the mother's educational level, and family income.Summary Measures of Residential Magnetic-Field Exposures
Risk estimates based on the summary residential magnetic-field exposures for a priori measurement categories did not differ significantly from unity either for all the subjects (629 case patients and 619 controls) or for the 463 matched pairs (Table 2Table 2
Risk of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia According to Time-Weighted Average Summary Levels of 60-Hz Residential Magnetic Fields in the Unmatched and Matched Analysis.), nor did risk increase significantly with increasing summary magnetic-field levels (P for trend = 0.22 for the unmatched analyses and 0.12 for the matched analyses). Risk was higher with estimated summary exposures of 0.300 μT or more (odds ratio, 1.72; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.03 to 2.86; 45 case patients and 28 controls); however, risk did not increase significantly with increasing exposure when exposure was evaluated as a continuous variable (P for trend = 0.15 for the unmatched analysis and 0.09 for the matched analysis).When the analysis was restricted to subjects who lived in a single home during the study period or to those who lived for the entire reference period in homes for which we obtained 24-hour bedroom measurements, the risks differed little from those shown in Table 2 (data not shown). The results were also virtually unchanged if a partial time-weighted average bedroom measurement for less than 24 hours (i.e., 4 p.m. to 6 a.m. or 10 p.m. to 6 a.m.) was substituted for the full 24-hour average to reflect more accurately the specific period of time subjects spent in their bedrooms. Also, risk estimates were similar after adjustment for differences between case patients and controls in the calendar year, season, or time of day of the measurements. We found no consistent pattern in the relation of summary residential magnetic-field levels to the risk of ALL according to family income, parental educational level or occupation, birth order, or other socioeconomic or residential characteristics.
Main-Residence Wire-Code Patterns
For the main residence, we found no association between the risk of ALL and residence in a home classified in the highest wire-code category according to either wire-code classification (Table 3Table 3
Risk of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia among 408 Matched Pairs of Children with Stable Residences, According to the Wertheimer–Leeper and Modified Kaune–Savitz Wire-Code Classifications of the Main Residence.). There were no positive or statistically significant dose–response trends, and results were not materially changed when adjusted for potentially confounding variables.Magnetic-Field Levels and Wire Codes of Residences during Pregnancy
As regards the homes resided in during pregnancy by the mothers of 257 case patients and 239 controls, the odds ratio for ALL was 0.75 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.45 to 1.24) for a magnetic-field level of 0.065 to 0.099 μT, as compared with the reference category (<0.065 μT); 1.32 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.81 to 2.15) for a level of 0.100 to 0.199 μT; and 1.24 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.69 to 2.23) for a level of 0.200 μT or higher (P for trend = 0.25). Among the 225 matched pairs whose mothers' residences during pregnancy were wire-coded, the odds ratios for ALL were 1.20 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.74 to 1.95) for the Wertheimer–Leeper code-configuration category of “ordinary low”; 1.07 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.61 to 1.86) for “ordinary high”; and 1.49 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.66 to 3.37) for “very high,” as compared with the reference category of “underground plus very low” (P for trend =0.07). For children under the age of three whose mothers' homes during pregnancy were wire-coded (149 matched pairs), the odds ratios were not significantly elevated and the risks did not increase significantly with higher wire-code categories (P for trend =0.19).
Discussion
We found no significant excess risk of childhood ALL associated with time-weighted average summary residential magnetic-field levels of 0.200 μT or greater, nor did we observe any significant dose–response trends. There was a tendency for the risk to be higher among subjects with summary exposure levels of 0.300 μT or more, but the number of children with such high levels was small. The risk of childhood ALL was not associated with high wire codes for either the subject's main residence or the mother's residence during pregnancy. Adjustment for socioeconomic, demographic, or other potentially confounding variables had little effect on the risk.
In contrast to three earlier U.S. studies,1,3,5 we found no association between the highest wire-code category and an elevated risk of childhood ALL. Our data demonstrated a significant correlation between measured magnetic fields and wire codes (unpublished data), as was found in previous studies.24-26 The lack of association between childhood ALL and wire-code categories is particularly noteworthy since public concern10 has been driven primarily by the excess risks linked with surrogate or historical estimates of residential magnetic-field exposure.1,3,5,6
The results of our measurements of magnetic-field levels, like those of four earlier investigations,3-6 also show no significant increase in the risk of ALL among children whose residences had measured magnetic-field levels of 0.200 μT or higher, based on a priori categories. The small increase in risk at estimated exposures of 0.300 μT or more derived from a significant excess incidence of ALL at the intermediate level of 0.400 to 0.499 μT, but the odds ratios were close to unity for estimated exposure levels of 0.500 μT or greater, and the P value for trend was not significant. We cannot exclude the possibility of a small increase in risk among children in homes with very high magnetic-field levels, as suggested in studies using historical estimates of residential magnetic-field exposure.4,6,7
We designed our investigation to address the limitations of earlier studies, particularly the lengthy intervals (typically years or decades) between the diagnosis of ALL and measurements of magnetic fields. In our study magnetic fields were usually measured within 24 months after the date of diagnosis in the children with ALL.17 Previous studies also included fewer cases of childhood leukemia, measured fields during a smaller proportion of the reference period or lacked a standardized reference interval for the evaluation of magnetic fields, and evaluated fewer potential confounding variables. Some of the earlier studies selected controls who moved less frequently than the case patients or failed to blind data collectors to the case or control status of the subjects living in each residence evaluated.10,12-15 We measured residential magnetic-field levels for nearly four times the numbers of case patients and controls in the largest previous investigation.5 An important strength of our study was that magnetic-field measurements covered more than 95 percent of the reference period for 77 percent of subjects and more than 90 percent of the reference period for 83 percent of subjects.17
We made a major effort to achieve a high rate of participation in the study, despite the substantial burden for families (an average of three hours for interviews and measurements). Overall, 78 percent of eligible case patients and 63 percent of eligible controls participated. Many of the reasons for not participating were unrelated to refusal by the subjects or their parents; they included refusals of permission for testing by current occupants of former residences or the failure of subjects to meet eligibility requirements (such as residential stability).
To address concern about possible response bias,27-29 we instructed the technicians to diagram the homes of 119 children who were identified during random-digit dialing as potential controls but whose parents declined permission for participation; we found that the proportion of these homes assigned by the computer algorithm to the highest wire-code category was similar to that among the subjects in our study.17 Moreover, the technicians diagrammed virtually all eligible residences of subjects whose families refused permission for magnetic-field measurements, since neither residential nor property access was necessary for assigning wire codes to residences. Residential mobility was similar for case patients and controls in this study, in contrast to an earlier investigation,3 which has been criticized because the case patients changed residences considerably more often than the controls.10,12-15 Additional strengths of our investigation included the collection of the exposure data on a blinded basis; the personal-exposure studies to develop19 and evaluate20 the measurement protocol; the routine calibration of all magnetic-field (Emdex) meters; the lengthy initial training, retraining, and site visits of measurement staff; the independent rediagramming of a substantial proportion of residences, which showed good concordance of assigned wire codes (unpublished data); and the regular review of all measurements, with detailed investigation of potential errors.17
A limitation of our investigation and all previous studies is the absence of measurements for individual residences in the years preceding the diagnosis of cancer. It is not known how well a single 24-hour measurement characterizes contemporary exposure, much less magnetic-field exposure years earlier. Very limited data suggest a moderate correlation between repeated spot measurements taken in the same residential location several years after the initial measurements.30 To examine the reproducibility and seasonal variation of magnetic-field measurements, we initiated a detailed longitudinal study of 50 homes in Detroit and Minneapolis. The preliminary results suggest good reproducibility and relatively little seasonal variation over a one-year period (Banks R, et al.: unpublished data). Repeated measurements in a large sample of homes over a longer period would help to resolve this issue. The selection of controls by random-digit dialing has known weaknesses,27 but the use of alternative control groups was not feasible.17 The only major difference between the case patients and the controls — a higher family income among controls — was probably due to the use of controls obtained by random-digit dialing,27 but this difference did not confound the relation between magnetic-field exposure and childhood ALL.
In summary, our comprehensive case–control investigation did not find significantly increased risks of ALL associated with time-weighted average summary residential magnetic-field measurements or with residence in homes characterized by a high wire-code category during the five years immediately preceding the diagnosis of ALL or during the index pregnancy. The finding of a tendency for risk to be higher at measured magnetic-field levels of 0.300 μT or greater was based on small numbers and was not characterized by a consistent pattern or a significant trend. Our results provide little support for the hypothesis that living in homes with high time-weighted average magnetic-field levels or in homes close to electrical transmission or distribution lines is related to the risk of childhood ALL.
Supported in part by a grant from the National Cancer Institute (RO1 CA48051) and by the University of Minnesota Children's Cancer Research Fund.
We are indebted to the members of the Advisory Committee (including Dr. Lawrence Fischer, director of the Institute for Experimental Toxicology, Michigan State University [chairperson]; Dr. Ron Brookmeyer, Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health; Dr. Raymond Greenberg, vice-president for academic affairs and provost, Medical University of South Carolina; Dr. Martin Misakian, National Institute of Standards and Technology; and former member Dr. Howard Wachtel, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Colorado) for their guidance and their numerous constructive suggestions on all aspects of the study. We are also indebted to Dr. John Boice, Jr., former chief of the Radiation Epidemiology Branch, National Cancer Institute, for his support in all phases of the study; to the staff of Westat, Inc., Rockville, Md. (including Beth Bridgeman, Kathy Deutchman, Susan Englehart, Susan Gardner, Vickie Griffis, Teferra Hailu, Barbara Hood, Nancy LaVerda, Pat Leonard, Judy Light, Bob McConnell, Pat Mueller, Arbarna Nathan, Margaret Pacious, Michelle Tanenbaum, Shirley Tipton, Susan Ditty Van-Till, and Freda Wentz), for data collection and data-management support; to the employees of Enertech, Campbell, Calif., for wire coding (Bob Workley and Esther Workley) and for programming meters (Richard Iriye); and to Mr. Jan Erik Deadman, School of Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, for advice on the assessment of magnetic-field exposure.
Source Information
From the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md. (M.S.L., E.E.H., R.A.K., D.R.F., S.W., R.E.T.); the Children's Cancer Group, Arcadia, Calif. (L.L.R., R.K.S.); the Division of Pediatric Epidemiology and Clinical Research, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, Minneapolis (L.L.R., R.K.S.); EM Factors, Richland, Wash. (W.T.K.); Westat, Inc., Rockville, Md. (C.M.H., S.N.); and Information Management Services, Rockville, Md. (C.T.H.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Linet at the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Executive Plaza North, Suite 408, Bethesda, MD 20892-7362.
Investigators and institutions participating in the Children's Cancer Group are listed in the Appendix.
Appendix
The principal investigators and participating institutions in the Children's Cancer Group (with grants from the National Cancer Institute in parentheses) were as follows: W.A. Bleyer, A. Khayat, H. Sather, M. Krailo, J. Buckley, D. Stram, and R. Sposto, Group Operations Center, Arcadia, Calif. (CA13539); R. Hutchinson, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor (CA02971); S. Shurin, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, Cleveland (CA20320); E. Baum, Children's Memorial Hospital, Chicago (CA07431); F.L. Johnson, Wyler Children's Hospital, Chicago; F. Ruymann, Children's Hospital of Columbus, Columbus, Ohio (CA03750); J. Mirro, Children's Hospital, Pittsburgh (CA36015); W. Woods, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis (CA07306); A. Meadows, Children's Hospital, Philadelphia (CA11796); P. Brietfield, Riley Hospital for Children, Indianapolis (CA13809); R. Wells, Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati (CA26126); R. Tannous, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City (CA29314); G. Gilchrist, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. (CA28882); and M. Donaldson, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Camden.
- References
References
1
Wertheimer N ,Leeper E . Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1979;109:273-284
Web of Science | Medline2
Fulton JP ,Cobb S ,Preble L ,Leone L ,Forman E . Electrical wiring configurations and childhood leukemia in Rhode Island. Am J Epidemiol 1980;111:292-296
Web of Science | Medline3
Savitz DA ,Wachtel H ,Barnes FA ,John EM ,Tvrdik JG . Case-control study of childhood cancer and exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields. Am J Epidemiol 1988;128:21-38
Web of Science | Medline4
Tomenius L . 50-Hz electromagnetic environment and the incidence of childhood tumors in Stockholm County. Bioelectromagnetics 1986;7:191-207
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline5
London SJ ,Thomas DC ,Bowman JD ,Sobel E ,Cheng T-C ,Peters JM . Exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukemia. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:923-937[Erratum, J Epidemiol 1993;137:381.]
Web of Science | Medline6
Feychting M ,Ahlbom A . Magnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Swedish high-voltage power lines. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138:467-481
Web of Science | Medline7
Olsen JH ,Nielsen A ,Schulgen G . Residence near high voltage facilities and risk of cancer in children. BMJ 1993;307:891-895
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline8
Verkasalo PK ,Pukkala E ,Hongisto MY , et al. Risk of cancer in Finnish children living close to power lines. BMJ 1993;307:895-899
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline9
Tynes T ,Haldorsen T . Electromagnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Norwegian high-voltage power lines. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:219-226
Web of Science | Medline10
Committee on the Possible Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Biologic Systems. Possible health effects of exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996:113-87.
11
Wertheimer N ,Leeper E . Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. Int J Epidemiol 1982;11:345-355
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline12
Savitz DA ,Pearce NE ,Poole C . Methodological issues in the epidemiology of electromagnetic fields and cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1989;11:59-78
Web of Science | Medline13
Poole C ,Trichopoulos D . Extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1991;2:267-276
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline14
Oak Ridge Associated Universities Panel. Health effects of low-frequency electric and magnetic fields. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992:V-1–V-18. (Publication no. 029-000-00443-9.)
15
Electromagnetic fields and the risk of cancer: report of an advisory group on non-ionising radiation. In: Documents of the NRPB. Vol. 3. No. 1. Didcot, United Kingdom: National Radiological Protection Board, 1992:54-80.
16
Tenforde TS. Interaction of ELF magnetic fields with living systems. In: Polk C, Postow E, eds. Handbook of biological effects of electromagnetic fields. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 1996:185-230.
17
Kleinerman RA, Linet MS, Hatch EE, et al. Magnetic field exposure assessment in a case-control study of childhood leukemia. Epidemiology (in press).
18
Robison LL ,Daigle A . Control selection using random digit dialing for cases of childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1984;120:164-166
Web of Science | Medline19
Kaune WT ,Darby SD ,Gardner SN ,Hrubec Z ,Iriye RN ,Linet MS . Development of a protocol for assessing time-weighted-average exposures of young children to power-frequency magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 1994;15:33-51
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline20
Friedman DR ,Hatch EE ,Tarone R , et al. Childhood exposure to magnetic fields: residential area measurements compared to personal dosimetry. Epidemiology 1996;7:151-155
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline21
Kaune WT ,Savitz DA . Simplification of the Wertheimer-Leeper wire code. Bioelectromagnetics 1994;15:275-282
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline22
Breslow NE, Day NE. Statistical methods in cancer research. Vol. I. The analysis of case-control studies. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1980:122-279. (IARC scientific publications no. 32.)
23
Robison LL, Neglia JP. Epidemiology of Down syndrome and childhood acute leukemia. In: McCoy EE, Epstein CJ, eds. Oncology and immunology of Down syndrome. Vol. 246 of Progress in clinical and biological research. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1987:19-32.
24
High Voltage Transmission Research Center. Survey of residential magnetic field sources. Vol. 1. Goals, results, and conclusions. Palo Alto, Calif.: Electric Power Research Institute, 1993:6-1–6-118.
25
Kaune WT ,Stevens RG ,Callahan NJ ,Severson RK ,Thomas DB . Residential magnetic and electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 1987;8:315-335
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline26
Barnes F ,Wachtel H ,Savitz D ,Fuller J . Use of wiring configuration and wiring codes for estimating externally generated electric and magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 1989;10:13-21
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline27
Wacholder S ,Silverman DT ,McLaughlin JK ,Mandel JS . Selection of controls in case-control studies. II. Types of controls. Am J Epidemiol 1992;135:1029-1041
Web of Science | Medline28
Jones TL ,Shih CH ,Thurston DH ,Ware BJ ,Cole P . Selection bias from differential residential mobility as an explanation for associations of wire codes with childhood cancers. J Clin Epidemiol 1993;46:545-548
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline29
Gurney JG ,Davis S ,Schwartz SM ,Mueller BA ,Kaune WT ,Stevens RG . Childhood cancer occurrence in relation to power line configurations: a study of potential selection bias in case-control studies. Epidemiology 1995;6:31-35
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline30
Dovan T ,Kaune WT ,Savitz DA . Repeatability of measurements of residential magnetic fields and wire codes. Bioelectromagnetics 1993;14:145-159
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline
- Citing Articles (142)
Citing Articles
1
C. V. Bellieni, I. Pinto, A. Bogi, N. Zoppetti, D. Andreuccetti, G. Buonocore. (2012) Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields From Laptop Use of “Laptop” Computers. Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health 67:1, 31-36
CrossRef2
Joachim Schüz, Gabriele Berg-Beckhoff, Brigitte Schlehofer, Maria Blettner. 2011. The Role of Epidemiology in Cancer Risk Assessment of Nonionizing Radiation. , 61-81.
CrossRef3
Leeka Kheifets, John Swanson, Shaiela Kandel, Timothy F. Malloy. (2010) Risk Governance for Mobile Phones, Power Lines, and Other EMF Technologies. Risk Analysis 30:10, 1481-1494
CrossRef4
Simona Carrubba, Clifton Frilot II, Andrew L. Chesson Jr., Andrew A. Marino. (2010) Numerical analysis of recurrence plots to detect effect of environmental-strength magnetic fields on human brain electrical activity. Medical Engineering & Physics 32:8, 898-907
CrossRef5
N. Pearce. (2009) Hyping Health Risks: Environmental Hazards in Daily Life and the Science of Epidemiology. Kabat GC.. International Journal of Epidemiology 38:6, 1746-1748
CrossRef6
Joachim Schüz, Susanna Lagorio, Ferdinando Bersani. (2009) Electromagnetic fields and epidemiology: An overview inspired by the fourth course at the International School of Bioelectromagnetics. Bioelectromagnetics 30:7, 511-524
CrossRef7
Myron Maslanyj, Jill Simpson, Eve Roman, Joachim Schüz. (2009) Power frequency magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukaemia: Misclassification of exposure from the use of the ‘distance from power line’ exposure surrogate. Bioelectromagnetics 30:3, 183-188
CrossRef8
Moon-Koo Chung, Wook-Joon Yu, Yong-Bum Kim, Sung-Ho Myung. (2009) Lack of a co-promotion effect of 60 Hz circularly polarized magnetic fields on spontaneous development of lymphoma in AKR mice. Bioelectromagneticsn/a-n/a
CrossRef9
Gabriela Henrykowska, Wojciech Jankowski, Krzysztof Pacholski, Małgorzata Lewicka, Janusz Śmigielski, Maria Dziedziczak-Buczyńska, Andrzej Buczyński. (2009) The effect of 50 hz magnetic field of different shape on oxygen metabolism in blood platelets: <i>in vitro</i> studies. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 22:3, 269-276
CrossRef10
SLC Figliolia, DT Oliveira, MC Pereira, JRP Lauris, AR Maurício, DT Oliveira, ML Mello de Andrea. (2008) Oral mucositis in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: analysis of 169 paediatric patients. Oral Diseases 14:8, 761-766
CrossRef11
J. Schuz, A. Ahlbom. (2008) Exposure to electromagnetic fields and the risk of childhood leukaemia: a review. Radiation Protection Dosimetry 132:2, 202-211
CrossRef12
Moon-Koo Chung, Yong-Bum Kim, Chang-Su Ha, Sung-Ho Myung. (2008) Lack of a co-promotion effect of 60 Hz rotating magnetic fields on N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea induced neurogenic tumors in F344 rats. Bioelectromagnetics 29:7, 539-548
CrossRef13
I-Fan Lin, Chung-Yi Li, Jung-Der Wang. (2008) Analysis of individual- and school-level clustering of power frequency magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 29:7, 564-570
CrossRef14
Michael Kundi. (2007) EMFs and Childhood Leukemia. Environmental Health Perspectives 115:8, A395-A395
CrossRef15
Joachim Sch??z. (2007) IMPLICATIONS FROM EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES ON MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THE RISK OF CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA ON PROTECTION GUIDELINES. Health Physics 92:6, 642-648
CrossRef16
Vivianne H. M. Visschers, Ree M. Meertens, Wim F. Passchier, Nanne K. de Vries. (2007) An Associative Approach to Risk Perception: Measuring the Effects of Risk Communications Directly and Indirectly<1?tpb=-6pt?>. Journal of Risk Research 10:3, 371-383
CrossRef17
Irena Buka, Samuel Koranteng, Alvaro R. Osornio Vargas. (2007) Trends in Childhood Cancer Incidence: Review of Environmental Linkages. Pediatric Clinics of North America 54:1, 177-203
CrossRef18
Chung-Yi Li, Gabor Mezei, Fung-Chang Sung, Michael Silva, Pei-Chun Chen, Pei-Chen Lee, Li-Mei Chen. (2007) Survey of residential extremely-low-frequency magnetic field exposure among children in Taiwan. Environment International 33:2, 233-238
CrossRef19
We I-Jong Ger, Wushou Peter Chang, Fun G-Chang Sung, Chun G-Yi Li. (2007) Accuracy of short-term residential measurement in the prediction of 72-h exposure to power frequency magnetic field in households very close to high-tension transmission lines. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 17:1, 69-75
CrossRef20
J. Mark Elwood. (2006) Response to Kheifets et al. on “Comment concerning ‘childhood leukemia and residential magnetic fields: are pooled analyses more valid than the original studies?’”. Bioelectromagnetics 27:8, 675-676
CrossRef21
Leeka Kheifets, Gabor Mezei, Sander Greenland. (2006) Comment concerning “Childhood leukemia and residential magnetic fields: are pooled analyses more valid than the original studies?” (Bioelectromagnetics 27:1–7 [2006]). Bioelectromagnetics 27:8, 674-675
CrossRef22
Martin Belson, Beverely Kingsley, Adrianne Holmes. (2006) Risk Factors for Acute Leukemia in Children: A Review. Environmental Health Perspectives 115:1, 138-145
CrossRef23
Michinori Kabuto, Hiroshi Nitta, Seiichiro Yamamoto, Naohito Yamaguchi, Suminori Akiba, Yasushi Honda, Jun Hagihara, Katsuo Isaka, Tomohiro Saito, Toshiyuki Ojima, Yosikazu Nakamura, Tetsuya Mizoue, Satoko Ito, Akira Eboshida, Shin Yamazaki, Shigeru Sokejima, Yoshika Kurokawa, Osami Kubo. (2006) Childhood leukemia and magnetic fields in Japan: A case-control study of childhood leukemia and residential power-frequency magnetic fields in Japan. International Journal of Cancer 119:3, 643-650
CrossRef24
Leeka Kheifets, Abdelmonem A. Afifi, Riti Shimkhada. (2006) Public Health Impact of Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields. Environmental Health Perspectives 114:10, 1532-1537
CrossRef25
Y. Touitou, A. Bogdan, J. Lambrozo, B. Selmaoui. (2006) Is Melatonin the Hormonal Missing Link Between Magnetic Field Effects and Human Diseases?. Cancer Causes & Control 17:4, 547-552
CrossRef26
Sander Greenland, Leeka Kheifets. (2006) Leukemia Attributable to Residential Magnetic Fields: Results from Analyses Allowing for Study Biases. Risk Analysis 26:2, 471-482
CrossRef27
Sander Greenland. (2006) Smoothing Observational Data: A Philosophy and Implementation for the Health Sciences. International Statistical Review 74:1, 31-46
CrossRef28
Jon Palfreman. (2006) The Rise and Fall of Power Line EMFs: The Anatomy of a Magnetic Controversy. Review of Policy Research 23:2, 453-472
CrossRef29
J. Mark Elwood. (2006) Childhood leukemia and residential magnetic fields: Are pooled analyses more valid than the original studies?. Bioelectromagnetics 27:2, 112-118
CrossRef30
D E Foliart, B H Pollock, G Mezei, R Iriye, J M Silva, K L Ebi, L Kheifets, M P Link, R Kavet. (2006) Magnetic field exposure and long-term survival among children with leukaemia. British Journal of Cancer 94:1, 161-164
CrossRef31
Ashley Chaplin. (2005) The effects of a one Tesla magnet on human fibroblast growth. BIOS 76:4, 193-203
CrossRef32
Cristina Fatigoni, Luca Dominici, Massimo Moretti, Milena Villarini, Silvano Monarca. (2005) Genotoxic effects of extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields (MF) evaluated by theTradescantia-micronucleus assay. Environmental Toxicology 20:6, 585-591
CrossRef33
Maria Rosaria Scarfí, Anna Sannino, Alessandro Perrotta, Maurizio Sarti, Pietro Mesirca, Ferdinando Bersani. (2005) Evaluation of Genotoxic Effects in Human Fibroblasts after Intermittent Exposure to 50 Hz Electromagnetic Fields: A Confirmatory Study. Radiation Research 164:3, 270-276
CrossRef34
Leeka Kheifets, Jack D. Sahl, Riti Shimkhada, Mike H. Repacholi. (2005) Developing Policy in the Face of Scientific Uncertainty: Interpreting 0.3 muT or 0.4 muT Cutpoints from EMF Epidemiologic Studies. Risk Analysis 25:4, 927-935
CrossRef35
Sander Greenland. 2005. Smoothing Methods in Epidemiology. .
CrossRef36
Marilyn J. Borugian, John J. Spinelli, Gabor Mezei, Russell Wilkins, Zenaida Abanto, Mary L. McBride. (2005) Childhood Leukemia and Socioeconomic Status in Canada. Epidemiology 16:4, 526-531
CrossRef37
Massimo Moretti, Milena Villarini, Stefano Simonucci, Cristina Fatigoni, Giuseppina Scassellati-Sforzolini, Silvano Monarca, Rossana Pasquini, Monica Angelucci, Maila Strappini. (2005) Effects of co-exposure to extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields and benzene or benzene metabolites determined in vitro by the alkaline comet assay. Toxicology Letters 157:2, 119-128
CrossRef38
F WOLF, A TORSELLO, B TEDESCO, S FASANELLA, A BONINSEGNA, M DASCENZO, C GRASSI, G AZZENA, A CITTADINI. (2005) 50-Hz extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields enhance cell proliferation and DNA damage: possible involvement of a redox mechanism. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research 1743:1-2, 120-129
CrossRef39
Sander Greenland. (2005) Multiple-bias modelling for analysis of observational data (with discussion). Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 168:2, 267-306
CrossRef40
James L. Oschman. (2005) Energy and the healing response. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 9:1, 3-15
CrossRef41
Leeka Kheifets, Riti Shimkhada. (2005) Childhood leukemia and EMF: Review of the epidemiologic evidence. Bioelectromagnetics 26:S7, S51-S59
CrossRef42
A. Testa, E. Cordelli, L. Stronati, C. Marino, G.A. Lovisolo, A.M. Fresegna, D. Conti, Paola Villani. (2004) Evaluation of genotoxic effect of low level 50 Hz magnetic fields on human blood cells using different cytogenetic assays. Bioelectromagnetics 25:8, 613-619
CrossRef43
Cristiano Riminesi, Daniele Andreuccetti, Roberto Fossi, Marco Pezzati. (2004) ELF magnetic field exposure in a neonatal intensive care unit. Bioelectromagnetics 25:7, 481-491
CrossRef44
S. Lange, T. Viergutz, M. Simko. (2004) Modifications in cell cycle kinetics and in expression of G1 phase-regulating proteins in human amniotic cells after exposure to electromagnetic fields and ionizing radiation. Cell Proliferation 37:5, 337-349
CrossRef45
(2004) Magnetic Fields and Leukemia. New England Journal of Medicine 351:1, 102-102
Full Text46
Isaac Luginaah, John Eyles, Susan Elliott. (2004) Informing the development of decision support tools for risk management: the case of electrical and magnetic fields. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 47:4, 601-621
CrossRef47
Alain Turgeon, Michel Bourdages, Patrick Levallois, Denis Gauvin, Suzanne Gingras, Jan Erik Deadman, Daniel L. Goulet, Michel Plante. (2004) Experimental validation of a statistical model for evaluating the past or future magnetic field exposures of a population living near power lines. Bioelectromagnetics 25:5, 374-379
CrossRef48
Moon-Koo Chung, Jong-Choon Kim, Sung-Ho Myung. (2004) Lack of adverse effects in pregnant/lactating female rats and their offspring following pre- and postnatal exposure to ELF magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 25:4, 236-244
CrossRef49
J R Gonzalez, E Fernandez, J S de Toledo, J Galceran, M Peris, R Gispert, J M Borr??s. (2004) Trends in Childhood Cancer Incidence and Mortality in Catalonia, Spain, 1975???1998. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 13:1, 47-51
CrossRef50
Tetsuya Mizoue, Yasuhiro Onoe, Hiroshi Moritake, Jun Okamura, Shigeru Sokejima, Hiroshi Nitta. (2004) Residential Proximity to High-Voltage Power Lines and Risk of Childhood Hematological Malignancies. Journal of Epidemiology 14:4, 118-123
CrossRef51
Dana Loomis, Hans Kromhout. (2004) Exposure variability: Concepts and applications in occupational epidemiology. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 45:1, 113-122
CrossRef52
R. Pasquini, M. Villarini, G. Scassellati Sforzolini, C. Fatigoni, M. Moretti. (2003) Micronucleus induction in cells co-exposed in vitro to 50 Hz magnetic field and benzene, 1,4-benzenediol (hydroquinone) or 1,2,4-benzenetriol
. Toxicology in Vitro 17:5-6, 581-586
CrossRef53
C. Garrido, A.F. Otero, J. Cidras. (2003) Low-frequency magnetic fields from electrical appliances and power lines. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery 18:4, 1310-1319
CrossRef54
Sander Greenland. (2003) The Impact of Prior Distributions for Uncontrolled Confounding and Response Bias. Journal of the American Statistical Association 98:461, 47-54
CrossRef55
Sander Greenland. (2003) Generalized Conjugate Priors for Bayesian Analysis of Risk and Survival Regressions. Biometrics 59:1, 92-99
CrossRef56
C La Vecchia, S Franceschi, F Levi. (2003) Epidemiological research on cancer with a focus on Europe. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 12:1, 5-14
CrossRef57
J. Mark Elwood. (2003) Epidemiological studies of radio frequency exposures and human cancer. Bioelectromagnetics 24:S6, S63-S73
CrossRef58
B. R. Henderson, G. Pfister, G. Boeck, M. Kind, G. Wick. (2003) Expression levels of heat shock protein 60 in human endothelial cells in vitro are unaffected by exposure to 50 Hz magnetic fields. Cell Stress & Chaperones 8:2, 172
CrossRef59
Mark Oppenheimer, Susan Preston-Martin. (2002) Adult onset acute myelogenous leukemia and electromagnetic fields in Los Angeles County: Bed-heating and occupational exposures. Bioelectromagnetics 23:6, 411-415
CrossRef60
William H. Bailey. (2002) HEALTH EFFECTS RELEVANT TO THE SETTING OF EMF EXPOSURE LIMITS. Health Physics 83:3, 376-386
CrossRef61
Jiliang Zhou, Gengdong Yao, Jingsong Zhang, Zongliang Chang. (2002) CREB DNA binding activation by a 50-Hz magnetic field in HL60 cells is dependent on extra- and intracellular Ca2+ but not PKA, PKC, ERK, or p38 MAPK. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 296:4, 1013-1018
CrossRef62
Tadashi Negishi, Setsuo Imai, Masafumi Itabashi, Izumi Nishimura, Takao Sasano. (2002) Studies of 50 Hz circularly polarized magnetic fields of up to 350 ?T on reproduction and embryo-fetal development in rats: Exposure during organogenesis or during preimplantation. Bioelectromagnetics 23:5, 369-389
CrossRef63
Jiliang Zhou, Changlin Li, Gengdong Yao, Huai Chiang, Zongliang Chang. (2002) Gene expression of cytokine receptors in HL60 cells exposed to a 50 Hz magnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics 23:5, 339-346
CrossRef64
Lee E. Moore, Meng Lu, Allan H. Smith. (2002) Childhood Cancer Incidence and Arsenic Exposure in Drinking Water in Nevada. Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal 57:3, 201-206
CrossRef65
Pagona Lagiou, Rulla Tamimi, Areti Lagiou, Lorelei Mucci, Dimitrios Trichopoulos. (2002) Is epidemiology implicating extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields in childhood leukemia?. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 7:2, 33-39
CrossRef66
W.T. Kaune, T. Dovan, R.I. Kavet, D.A. Savitz, R.R. Neutra. (2002) Study of high- and low-current-configuration homes from the 1988 Denver childhood cancer study. Bioelectromagnetics 23:3, 177-188
CrossRef67
Ulla M. Forss
n, Anders Ahlbom, Maria Feychting. (2002) Relative contribution of residential and occupational magnetic field exposure over twenty-four hours among people living close to and far from a power line. Bioelectromagnetics 23:3, 239-244
CrossRef68
Robert S. Banks, William Thomas, Jack S. Mandel, William T. Kaune, Sholom Wacholder, Robert E. Tarone, Martha S. Linet. (2002) Temporal trends and misclassification in residential 60 Hz magnetic field measurements. Bioelectromagnetics 23:3, 196-205
CrossRef69
A. Boland, D. Delapierre, D. Mossay, A. Dresse, V. Seutin. (2002) Effect of intermittent and continuous exposure to electromagnetic fields on cultured hippocampal cells. Bioelectromagnetics 23:2, 97-105
CrossRef70
Karin C. Söderberg, Estelle Naumburg, Gert Anger, Sven Cnattingius, Anders Ekbom, Maria Feychting. (2002) Childhood Leukemia and Magnetic Fields in Infant Incubators. Epidemiology 13:1, 45-49
CrossRef71
De-Kun Li, Roxana Odouli, Soora Wi, Teresa Janevic, Ira Golditch, T. Dan Bracken, Russell Senior, Richard Rankin, Richard Iriye. (2002) A Population-Based Prospective Cohort Study of Personal Exposure to Magnetic Fields during Pregnancy and the Risk of Miscarriage. Epidemiology 13:1, 9-20
CrossRef72
Donna E. Foliart, Richard N. Iriye, Kathleen J. Tarr, J. Michael Silva, Rob Kavet, Kristie L. Ebi. (2001) Alternative magnetic field exposure metrics: Relationship to TWA, appliance use, and demographic characteristics of children in a leukemia survival study. Bioelectromagnetics 22:8, 574-580
CrossRef73
J. Brix, H. Wettemann, O. Scheel, F. Feiner, R. Matthes. (2001) Measurement of the individual exposure to 50 and 16 2/3 Hz magnetic fields within the Bavarian population. Bioelectromagnetics 22:5, 323-332
CrossRef74
W. T. Kaune, R. S. Banks, M. S. Linet, E. E. Hatch, R. A. Kleinerman, S. Wacholder, R. E. Tarone, C. Haines. (2001) Static magnetic field measurements in residences in relation to resonance hypotheses of interactions between power-frequency magnetic fields and humans. Bioelectromagnetics 22:5, 294-305
CrossRef75
Takao Koana, Mikie O Okada, Yoshio Takashima, Masateru Ikehata, Junji Miyakoshi. (2001) Involvement of eddy currents in the mutagenicity of ELF magnetic fields. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis 476:1-2, 55-62
CrossRef76
W.T. Kaune, S. Davis, R.G. Stevens, D.K. Mirick, L. Kheifets. (2001) Measuring temporal variability in residential magnetic field exposures. Bioelectromagnetics 22:4, 232-245
CrossRef77
Anders Ahlbom, Maria Feychting. (2001) Current thinking about risks from currents. The Lancet 357:9263, 1143-1144
CrossRef78
Joachim Schüz, Jan-Peter Grigat, Karl Brinkmann, Jörg Michaelis. (2001) Residential magnetic fields as a risk factor for childhood acute leukaemia: Results from a German population-based case-control study. International Journal of Cancer 91:5, 728-735
CrossRef79
Sander Greenland. (2001) Estimation of Population Attributable Fractions from Fitted Incidence Ratios and Exposure Survey Data, with an Application to Electromagnetic Fields and Childhood Leukemia. Biometrics 57:1, 182-188
CrossRef80
R. L. Park. (2001) Cellular Telephones and Cancer: How Should Science Respond?. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 93:3, 166-167
CrossRef81
Raymond Richard Neutra, Vincent Del Pizzo. (2001) California department of health services workshop on EMF epidemiology. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S1-S3
CrossRef82
David A. Savitz, Charles Poole. (2001) Do studies of wire code and childhood leukemia point towards or away from magnetic fields as the causal agent?. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S69-S85
CrossRef83
Eleni Petridou. (2001) Is Chemical Pollution Responsible for Childhood Tumors?. Epidemiology 12:1, 4-6
CrossRef84
Leeka I. Kheifets. (2001) Electric and magnetic field exposure and brain cancer: A review. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S120-S131
CrossRef85
Raymond R. Neutra. (2001) Panel exploring pro and con arguments as to whether EMFs cause childhood brain cancer. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S144-S149
CrossRef86
Daniel Wartenberg. (2001) The potential impact of bias in studies of residential exposure to magnetic fields and childhood leukemia. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S32-S47
CrossRef87
Daniel Wartenberg. (2001) Residential EMF exposure and childhood leukemia: Meta-analysis and population attributable risk. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S86-S104
CrossRef88
Bryan Langholz. (2001) Factors that explain the power line configuration wiring code-childhood leukemia association: What would they look like?. Bioelectromagnetics 22:S5, S19-S31
CrossRef89
C Aldinucci. (2000) The effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields on the physiologic behaviour of a human astrocytoma cell line. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research 1499:1-2, 101-108
CrossRef90
R. Y. Wu, H. Chiang, G. L. Hu, Q. L. Zeng, J. L. Bao. (2000) The effect of 50 Hz magnetic field on GCSmRNA expression in lymphoma B cell by mRNA differential display. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 79:3, 460-470
CrossRef91
A. Maes, M. Collier, S. Vandoninck, P. Scarpa, L. Verschaeve. (2000) Cytogenetic effects of 50 Hz magnetic fields of different magnetic flux densities. Bioelectromagnetics 21:8, 589-596
CrossRef92
Sander Greenland, Asher R. Sheppard, William T. Kaune, Charles Poole, Michael A. Kelsh. (2000) A Pooled Analysis of Magnetic Fields, Wire Codes, and Childhood Leukemia. Epidemiology 11:6, 624-634
CrossRef93
R. Kavet, L. E. Zaffanella, J. P. Daigle, K. L. Ebi. (2000) The possible role of contact current in cancer risk associated with residential magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 21:7, 538-553
CrossRef94
Alan W Preece, Jeff W Hand, Robert N Clarke, Alice Stewart. (2000) Power frequency electromagnetic fields and health. Where's the evidence? 5. Physics in Medicine and Biology 45:9, R139-R154
CrossRef95
A. Schirmacher, S. Winters, S. Fischer, J. Goeke, H.-J. Galla, U. Kullnick, E. B. Ringelstein, F. St
CrossRef96
Kristie L. Ebi, Leeka I. Kheifets, Robert L. Pearson, Howard Wachtel. (2000) Description of a new computer wire coding method and its application to evaluate potential control selection bias in the Savitz et al. childhood cancer study. Bioelectromagnetics 21:5, 346-353
CrossRef97
Julie A. Ross, Andrine R. Swensen. (2000) Prenatal Epidemiology of Pediatric Tumors. Current Oncology Reports 2:3, 234-241
CrossRef98
Gary A. Boorman, Charles N. Rafferty, Jerrold M. Ward, Robert C. Sills. (2000) Leukemia and Lymphoma Incidence in Rodents Exposed to Low-Frequency Magnetic Fields. Radiation Research 153:5, 627-636
CrossRef99
AW Craft. (2000) Childhood cancer-mainly curable so where next?. Acta Paediatrica 89:4, 386-392
CrossRef100
W.T. Kaune, T.D. Bracken, R.S. Senior, R.F. Rankin, J.C. Niple, R. Kavet. (2000) Rate of occurrence of transient magnetic field events in U.S. residences. Bioelectromagnetics 21:3, 197-213
CrossRef101
Lemuel A. Moy
CrossRef102
Elizabeth E. Hatch, Ruth A. Kleinerman, Martha S. Linet, Robert E. Tarone, William T. Kaune, Anssi Auvinen, Dalsu Baris, Leslie L. Robison, Sholom Wacholder. (2000) Do Confounding or Selection Factors of Residential Wiring Codes and Magnetic Fields Distort Findings of Electromagnetic Fields Studies?. Epidemiology 11:2, 189-198
CrossRef103
M Havas. (2000) Biological effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic energy: A critical review of the reports by the US National Research Council and the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences as they relate to the broad realm of EMF bioeffects. Environmental Reviews 8:3, 173-253
CrossRef104
Nancy Wertheimer. (2000) d'Arsonval address: Adequacy of wire codes and other proxies used to assess historic magnetic field exposure. Bioelectromagnetics 21:1, 2-7
CrossRef105
V. Romano-Spica, N. Mucci, C.L. Ursini, A. Ianni, N.K. Bhat. (2000) Ets1 oncogene induction by ELF-modulated 50 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics 21:1, 8-18
CrossRef106
JUNJI MIYAKOSHI, MASAMI YOSHIDA, KEIKO SHIBUYA, MASAHIRO HIRAOKA. (2000) Exposure to Strong Magnetic Fields at Power Frequency Potentiates X-ray-induced DNA Strand Breaks. Journal of Radiation Research 41:3, 293-302
CrossRef107
L Caplan. (2000) Breast Cancer and Electromagnetic Fields—A Review. Annals of Epidemiology 10:1, 31-44
CrossRef108
(1999) Exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields and the risk of childhood cancer. The Lancet 354:9194, 1925-1931
CrossRef109
Elinor R. Schoenfeld, Kevin Henderson, Erin O'Leary, Roger Grimson, William Kaune, M. Cristina Leske. (1999) Magnetic field exposure assessment: A comparison of various methods. Bioelectromagnetics 20:8, 487-496
CrossRef110
John D Dockerty, J Mark Elwood, David C G Skegg, G Peter Herbison. (1999) Electromagnetic field exposures and childhood leukaemia in New Zealand. The Lancet 354:9194, 1967-1968
CrossRef111
Michael H Repacholi, Anders Ahlbom. (1999) Link between electromagnetic fields and childhood cancer unresolved. The Lancet 354:9194, 1918-1919
CrossRef112
ANDERS AHLBOM, MARIA FEYCHTING. (1999) A Bayesian Approach to Hazard Identification: The Case of Electromagnetic Fields and Cancer. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 895:1 UNCERTAINTY I, 27-33
CrossRef113
X. O. Shu, M. S. Linet, M. Steinbuch, W. Q. Wen, J. D. Buckley, J. P. Neglia, J. D. Potter, G. H. Reaman, L. L. Robison. (1999) Breast-Feeding and Risk of Childhood Acute Leukemia. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91:20, 1765-1772
CrossRef114
Carolyn A Felix. (1999) Evidence of early start for common acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. The Lancet 354:9189, 1486-1487
CrossRef115
Duncan C. Thomas, Joseph D. Bowman, Liangzhong Jiang, Feng Jiang, John M. Peters. (1999) Residential magnetic fields predicted from wiring configurations: II. Relationships to childhood leukemia. Bioelectromagnetics 20:7, 414-422
CrossRef116
Joseph D. Bowman, Duncan C. Thomas, Liangzhong Jiang, Feng Jiang, John M. Peters. (1999) Residential magnetic fields predicted from wiring configurations: I. Exposure model. Bioelectromagnetics 20:7, 399-413
CrossRef117
Samuel Milham, James B. Hatfield, Richard Tell. (1999) Magnetic fields from steel-belted radial tires: Implications for epidemiologic studies. Bioelectromagnetics 20:7, 440-445
CrossRef118
Raddassi Khadir, James L Morgan, John J Murray. (1999) Effects of 60 Hz magnetic field exposure on polymorphonuclear leukocyte activation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects 1472:1-2, 359-367
CrossRef119
Heinz Wolff, Simon Gamble, Tristan Barkley, Lee Janaway, Felicity Jowett, Justin A T Halls, Janet E Arrand. (1999) The design, construction and calibration of a carefully controlled source for exposure of mammalian cells to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields. Journal of Radiological Protection 19:3, 231-242
CrossRef120
Pio Conti, Marcella Reale, Alfredo Grilli, Renato C. Barbacane, Silvano Di Luzio, Mario Di Gioacchino, Maria A. De Lutiis, Mario Felaco. (1999) Effect of Electromagnetic Fields on Several CD Markers and Transcription and Expression of CD4. Immunobiology 201:1, 36-48
CrossRef121
Lois M. Green, Anthony B. Miller, Paul J. Villeneuve, David A. Agnew, Mark L. Greenberg, Jiehui Li, Keith E. Donnelly. (1999) A case-control study of childhood leukemia in Southern Ontario, Canada, and exposure to magnetic fields in residences. International Journal of Cancer 82:2, 161-170
CrossRef122
J. G. Gurney, E. van Wijngaarden. (1999) Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (EMF) and brain cancer inadults and children: Review and comment. Neuro-Oncology 1:3, 212-220
CrossRef123
Tom Sorahan, Linda Hamilton, Kerry Gardiner, John T. Hodgson, J. Malcolm Harrington. (1999) Maternal occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields before, during, and after pregnancy in relation to risks of childhood cancers: Findings from the Oxford survey of childhood cancers, 1953-1981 deaths. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 35:4, 348-357
CrossRef124
Fran
CrossRef125
John Swanson, W.T. Kaune. (1999) Comparison of residential power-frequency magnetic fields away from appliances in different countries. Bioelectromagnetics 20:4, 244-254
CrossRef126
James R. Gauger, Tim R. Johnson, James E. Stangel, Robert C. Patterson, Dean A. Williams, J. Brooks Harder, David L. McCormick. (1999) Design, construction, and validation of a large capacity rodent magnetic field exposure laboratory. Bioelectromagnetics 20:1, 13-23
CrossRef127
Richard K. Severson, Julie A. Ross. (1999) The causes of acute leukemia. Current Opinion in Oncology 11:1, 20
CrossRef128
R. Kavet, R.M. Ulrich, W.T. Kaune, G.B. Johnson, T. Powers. (1999) Determinants of power-frequency magnetic fields in residences located away from overhead power lines. Bioelectromagnetics 20:5, 306-318
CrossRef129
Michael H. Repacholi, B. Greenebaum. (1999) Interaction of static and extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields with living systems: Health effects and research needs. Bioelectromagnetics 20:3, 133-160
CrossRef130
Peter O'Donahoo. (1998) Fields of dreams: Civil liability and mobile telephony. Technology, Law and Insurance 3:4, 275-283
CrossRef131
D Wartenberg. (1998) Residential magnetic fields and childhood leukemia: a meta-analysis.. American Journal of Public Health 88:12, 1787-1794
CrossRef132
A. W. Craft. (1998) Childhood cancer: Improved prospects for survival but is prevention possible?. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics 65:6, 797-804
CrossRef133
Joanna M. Watson, Eloise A. Parrish, Clifford A. Rinehart. (1998) Selective Potentiation of Gynecologic Cancer Cell Growthin Vitroby Electromagnetic Fields. Gynecologic Oncology 71:1, 64-71
CrossRef134
Junji Miyakoshi, Yukihiro Mori, Nobuyuki Yamagishi, Kasumi Yagi, Hiraku Takebe. (1998) Suppression of High-Density Magnetic Field (400 mT at 50 Hz)-Induced Mutations by Wild-Type p53 Expression in Human Osteosarcoma Cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 243:2, 579-584
CrossRef135
(1997) Literature Watch. Alternative and Complementary Therapies 3:6, 461-462
CrossRef136
(1997) Leukemia and Exposure to Magnetic Fields. New England Journal of Medicine 337:20, 1471-1474
Full Text137
Eleni Petridou, Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Athanasios Kravaritis, Apostolos Pourtsidis, Nick Dessypris, Yannis Skalkidis, Manolis Kogevinas, Maria Kalmanti, Dimitrios Koliouskas, Helen Kosmidis, John P. Panagiotou, Fani Piperopoulou, Fotini Tzortzatou, Victoria Kalapothaki. (1997) Electrical power lines and childhood leukemia: A study from Greece. International Journal of Cancer 73:3, 345-348
CrossRef138
Katharine E. Jong, Bruce K. Armstrong. (1997) A lesson from kindergarten on mobile phones. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 21:6, 555-557
CrossRef139
E.P. Richards. (1997) Litigating fear: electrical and magnetic fields (EMF) and the law. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine 16:5, 176-178
CrossRef140
Campion, Edward W., . (1997) Power Lines, Cancer, and Fear. New England Journal of Medicine 337:1, 44-46
Full Text141
KE von Mühlendahl. (1997) Small steps among the landmines. The Lancet 350, SIII19
CrossRef142
Katharine E. Jong, Bruce K. Armstrong. (1977) A lesson from kindergarten on mobile phones. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 21:6, 555-557
CrossRef
- Letters
