Original Article
Estimated Risk of Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus by Screened Blood in the United States
N Engl J Med 1995; 333:1721-1725December 28, 1995
- Abstract
Background
In the United States, transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by blood transfusion occurs almost exclusively when a recently infected blood donor is infectious but before antibodies to HIV become detectable (during the “window period”). We estimated the risk of HIV transmission caused by transfusion on the basis of the window period associated with the use of current, sensitive enzyme immunosorbent assays and recent data on HIV incidence among blood donors.
Methods
We analyzed demographic and laboratory data on more than 4.1 million blood donations obtained in 1992 and 1993 in 19 regions served by the American National Red Cross, as well as the results of HIV-antibody tests of 4.9 million donations obtained in an additional 23 regions.
Results
We estimated that, in the 19 study regions, 1 donation in every 360,000 (95 percent confidence interval, 210,000 to 1,140,000) was made during the window period. In addition, it is estimated that 1 in 2,600,000 donations was HIV-seropositive but was not identified as such because of an error in the laboratory. We estimated that 15 to 42 percent of window-period donations were discarded because they were seropositive on laboratory tests other than the HIV-antibody test. When these results were extrapolated to include the additional 23 Red Cross service regions, there was a risk of 1 case of HIV transmission for every 450,000 to 660,000 donations of screened blood. If the Red Cross centers are assumed to be representative of all U.S. blood centers, among the 12 million donations collected nationally each year an estimated 18 to 27 infectious donations are available for transfusion.
Conclusions
The estimated risk of transmitting HIV by the transfusion of screened blood is very small and nearly half that estimated previously, primarily because the sensitivity of enzyme immunosorbent assays has been improved.
Media in This Article
Table 1
Results of Screening Tests Other Than the HIV-Antibody Test among Blood Donations from First-Time and Repeat Donors in 19 Service Regions of the American National Red Cross, 1992–1993, According to Donor's HIV Status.Table 2
Estimated Incidence Rates of HIV Infection and Risks of Donation of Blood during the Window Period, 1992–1993, According to Service Region.Article Activity
- Article
After the practice of screening all blood donations for antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was introduced in the United States in 1985, the transmission of HIV by transfusion decreased dramatically.1 However, there has been continued concern about this route of HIV transmission,2,3 a marked decrease in the use of blood products,4 and increased demands to reduce the risk even further.
Currently, the risk of transmitting HIV by the transfusion of screened blood is almost completely due to the use of donations made during the “window period” when a recently infected donor is infectious but detectable HIV antibodies have not yet developed.5 The probability of a donation during this time is related to the duration of the window period and the incidence of HIV infection among blood donors.
Petersen et al.5 estimated that with the enzyme immunosorbent assays used to screen blood donations from 1985 through 1990, the average length of the window period was 45 days (95 percent confidence interval, 34 to 55). Using these values, Busch et al.6 later estimated that with contemporary enzyme immunosorbent assays involving recombinant, protein-based antibodies to HIV types 1 and 2, the window period was 20 days less — an average of 25 days (95 percent confidence interval, 9 to 41). Because the incidence of HIV among blood donors is very low and varies geographically, accurate estimates of the risk of HIV transmission by the transfusion of screened blood in the United States must be based on the study of many donations from many areas. We designed this study to calculate the risk of transmitting HIV through the transfusion of blood screened as seronegative by the contemporary HIV-antibody tests. We used information from regions across the United States for which blood services were provided by the American National Red Cross.
Methods
Study Population
We collected information on all voluntary and directed blood donations from January 1992 through December 1993 in 19 regions served by the American National Red Cross. The 19 study regions were selected from all regions served by the Red Cross nationally because their computerized data-management systems were compatible with each other. The Red Cross collects approximately half the 12 million blood donations made annually in the United States, and the 19 study regions accounted for approximately 43 percent of all donations received by the Red Cross during the study period.
For all donors of voluntary or directed donations in the study regions, we collected demographic information, dates of both current and previous donations, and the results of all laboratory tests used to screen the donated blood. No personal identifiers, such as names or donor-identification numbers, were included with the data. Because many regions do not collect information on race or ethnic group, we limited our analysis of this variable to the six regions for which there was complete information. Among the 25 Red Cross regions in the continental United States that were not included in the study, we collected the results of HIV tests for 23 regions in which the reporting of those data was complete. For all persons who made voluntary or directed donations in these 23 nonstudy regions, we collected information on the number of donations and the number of HIV-positive units given by both repeat and first-time donors.
Definition of Repeat and First-Time Donors
We defined repeat donors as those who had made a recorded donation of blood during the three years before the donation they made in 1992 or 1993. Donors in the 19 study regions who had not given blood during the preceding three years but who had done so previously were reclassified as first-time donors, as were those for whom there was no recorded date of an earlier donation in the region's data system (this group included both repeat donors from other regions and first-time donors who described themselves as repeat donors). Donors who described themselves as first-time donors but for whom the date of an earlier donation was recorded in the region's data system were reclassified as repeat donors. For the 23 nonstudy regions, we assumed that the proportion of HIV-positive and HIV-negative repeat donors who would be reclassified as first-time donors according to the above method was the same as in the 19 study regions.
Laboratory Tests
During the two-year study period, all blood donations were tested for HIV antibody, hepatitis B surface antigen, hepatitis B core antibody, hepatitis C antibody, antibody to Treponema pallidum, elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase, and antibody to human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I). Results of the tests for HTLV-I, hepatitis C antibody, or both were not available in three study regions. In addition, blood was screened for HIV type 1 and HIV type 2 with a recombinant, protein-based combination enzyme immunosorbent assay (Abbott, North Chicago, Ill.), and reactive specimens were retested again in duplicate. Repeatedly reactive specimens were tested by the Western blot assay licensed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Cambridge Biotech, Worcester, Mass.). Specimens confirmed as seropositive by Western blot assay according to the manufacturer's instructions at the reference laboratory of the American National Red Cross were considered positive for HIV antibodies. Because less than 1 percent of donors whose blood specimens repeatedly test as reactive by enzyme immunosorbent assay and as indeterminate by the Western blot assay subsequently seroconvert to positivity by the Western blot assay,7-9 donations that tested as indeterminate by the Western blot assay were excluded from the analysis.
General Approach
To determine the risk of transmitting HIV by the transfusion of screened blood, we first estimated the probability that a donation would be made during the window period of HIV infection on the basis of the duration of the window period5,6 and the incidence of HIV among blood donors. We then estimated the proportion of HIV-seropositive donations that were incorrectly determined to be seronegative as a result of laboratory error. We calculated the overall risk of transmitting HIV through the transfusion of screened blood by adding the risks associated with window-period donations to those associated with donations misclassified because of laboratory errors. Finally, we subtracted the estimated proportion of infectious donations that were not made available for transfusion because they had tested positive on screening tests other than the HIV-antibody test. These calculations yielded the estimated proportion of all donations that were infectious for HIV but that tested negative by HIV-antibody tests and all other screening tests used.
Incidence of HIV among Blood Donors
We calculated the overall incidence rate of HIV infection (the number of new infections per person-year of observation) from a weighted average of the incidence rates among repeat and first-time donors. The incidence rate among repeat donors in the 19 study regions was calculated as the number of such donors who seroconverted (those who tested HIV-positive at a donation made in 1992 or 1993 and HIV-negative at their previous donation) divided by the number of person-years of observation. The total number of person-years of observation was obtained by adding the number of person-years of observation for both the seronegative and the seroconverting repeat donors. The number of person-years of observation for seronegative donors in the 19 study regions was calculated as the number of donations made by seronegative repeat donors multiplied by the average interval between donations. To compute the number of person-years of observation for donors who seroconverted, we assumed that seroconversion occurred halfway between the dates of the seronegative and the seropositive donations. Because no data were available on the intervals between donations in the 23 nonstudy regions, we assumed that the average intervals in those regions were the same as those in the 19 study regions. We calculated the incidence of HIV among repeat donors in the nonstudy regions by dividing the number of seropositive repeat donors by the estimated number of person-years of observation.
The incidence of HIV among first-time donors cannot be measured directly, because a recent HIV infection cannot be distinguished from an older infection. When HIV testing first became available in 1985, no donors had been excluded because of a positive HIV-antibody test. The seroprevalence of HIV at that time was thus equivalent to the cumulative incidence of HIV among both first-time and repeat donors. At that time, the prevalence of HIV (and therefore its cumulative incidence) among first-time donors was 1.8 times that among repeat donors.10 We therefore assumed that the incidence rate of HIV among first-time donors in our study population was 1.8 times that among repeat donors.
Probability of a Donation during the Window Period
We calculated that the probability that a seronegative donation would be made during the window period was equal to the incidence rate of HIV among first-time and repeat donors, multiplied by the most recent estimate of the duration of the window period.5,6 In making these calculations, we assumed that the incidence of HIV, the distribution of intervals between donations, and the number of donations remained constant over time. In calculating confidence intervals for the 19 study regions, we assumed that the number of repeat donors who seroconverted followed a Poisson distribution and that uncertainty about the length of time between infection and the formation of detectable antibodies was independent of uncertainty about the number of seroconverting donors.
Laboratory Error
In this analysis, we defined a laboratory error as any technical or human error in the testing, recording, or discarding of donations that were unsuitable for transfusion. The probability that a laboratory error involving an HIV-infected unit of blood would occur was equal to the estimated probability of a laboratory error (0.5 percent)11-14 multiplied by the probability that the unit was HIV-infected (i.e., the seroprevalence of HIV).
Donations Discarded Because of the Results of Other Tests
Blood donations were tested for hepatitis B, hepatitis C, syphilis, HTLV-I, and elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase in addition to HIV. A number of donations made during the HIV window period were discarded because they tested positive on one or more of these screening tests. Because the proportion of window-period donations that were positive on these screening tests could not be determined, we defined lower and upper bounds of our estimate by using two techniques. To calculate the lower bound, we measured the proportion of donations made by HIV-positive repeat donors before seroconversion (i.e., donations that may have been made during the window period) that tested positive on screening tests other than HIV-antibody tests. This proportion would represent an underestimation of the number of units discarded because of the results of other tests, because it would not take into account window-period donors who were excluded because of positive laboratory tests and who did not return and make seropositive donations.
For the upper bound of our estimate, we calculated the proportion of HIV-positive donations that also tested positive on at least one laboratory test other than HIV-antibody tests. With this proportion, the number of infectious units discarded would be overestimated because the results of the other laboratory tests might have become positive after the donor became HIV-seropositive.
Results
Study Population
During the study period, 4,119,095 donations were made in the 19 study regions, among which 3,050,357 donations (74.0 percent) were made by repeat donors. A total of 318 donations (7.7 per 100,000) were HIV-seropositive, 250 (23.4 per 100,000) from first-time donors and 68 (2.2 per 100,000) from repeat donors. As in the population at large,15 HIV-positive blood donors were more likely than HIV-negative donors to be young (mean age, 31.9 vs. 37.5 years; P<0.001 by a two-tailed t-test), male (68 percent vs. 54 percent; relative risk, 1.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.4 to 2.3), and black (57 percent vs. 7 percent; relative risk, 16.6; 95 percent confidence interval, 12.3 to 22.4). In addition, HIV-positive blood donors were more likely to test positive on all other screening tests, with the exception of the test for HTLV-I (Table 1Table 1
Results of Screening Tests Other Than the HIV-Antibody Test among Blood Donations from First-Time and Repeat Donors in 19 Service Regions of the American National Red Cross, 1992–1993, According to Donor's HIV Status.).In the 23 nonstudy regions, 4,928,224 donations were made, 4,098,223 of which (83 percent) were reported to be from repeat donors (regardless of the date of the previous donation). Of 173 donations that were HIV-seropositive (3.5 per 100,000), 99 (11.9 per 100,000) were from first-time donors, and 74 (1.8 per 100,000) were from repeat donors.
Incidence of HIV
The overall incidence rate of HIV among repeat donors in the 19 study regions was 3.4 per 100,000 person-years. This rate differed according to region (range, 0 to 16.27 per 100,000 person-years) (Table 2Table 2
Estimated Incidence Rates of HIV Infection and Risks of Donation of Blood during the Window Period, 1992–1993, According to Service Region.). The incidence rate among all donors (first-time and repeat) was estimated to be 4.1 per 100,000 person-years (range, 0 to 19.7). The incidence rate among repeat donors was estimated to be 2.0 per 100,000 person-years in the 23 nonstudy regions and 2.6 per 100,000 person-years in all 42 regions included in the analysis (Table 2).Probability of a Window-Period Donation
In the 19 study regions, the probability that a donation was made during the window period was 1 in 360,000 (95 percent confidence interval, 210,000 to 1,140,000). The probability that such a donation would be made by a repeat donor was 1 in 400,000; among first-time donors this probability was estimated to be 1.8 times that among repeat donors, or 1 in 220,000. The probability of a window-period donation varied according to region, ranging from none to 1 in 70,000. In the region with the highest probability of a window-period donation (14.32 per million donations), we estimated that there would be 1.36 such donations per year (Table 2). In all 42 regions, the probability of a window-period donation was 1 in 450,000.
Laboratory Error
The probability that an HIV-positive donation would be available for transfusion as a result of laboratory error was considered to be the probability of a laboratory error (0.5 percent) multiplied by the probability that a donation would be HIV-positive (7.7 in 100,000), or 1 in 2,600,000. If 1 of every 2,600,000 units was infectious for HIV but not detected as such because of laboratory error, the overall risk of an infectious donation in all 42 regions would be 1 in 380,000.
Donations Discarded Because of the Results of Other Tests
Window-period donations would not be used if they tested positive on screening tests other than the HIV-antibody test. We analyzed the test results for 48 HIV-seronegative donations obtained in the 19 study regions from repeat donors before they seroconverted. Seven of these seronegative donations (15 percent) tested positive on other screening tests. Of the 318 HIV-positive units of blood given by first-time and repeat donors during the study period, 133 (42 percent) were also seropositive on other screening tests. If the proportion of seropositive donations positive on other tests was the same among the window-period donations, 42 percent of the window-period donations would have been discarded because of the positive results of the other tests. If 15 to 42 percent of all infectious donations were discarded because of the results of other tests, the estimated risk that an HIV-infectious donation would be available for transfusion in the 42 regions would range from 1 in 450,000 to 1 in 660,000.
Discussion
We estimated that from 1 in 450,000 to 1 in 660,000 screened blood donations in the United States may transmit HIV. If the risk calculated in the American National Red Cross regions is equivalent to the risk outside the Red Cross system, we would expect that from 18 to 27 of the 12 million donations screened annually in the United States would be infectious for HIV. According to this estimate, if each donation is divided into an average of 1.8 components,4 32 to 49 infectious components would be available for transfusion nationally each year. For the average transfusion recipient, who receives blood or blood components from 5.4 donors,10 the risk of receiving HIV-infectious blood would be essentially 5.4 times the risk associated with receiving a transfusion from a single donor, or from 1 in 83,000 to 1 in 122,000. HIV-related disease would not develop in all recipients of these components, however, because an estimated 25 to 50 percent of recipients die within a year after their transfusions from underlying medical conditions,16,17 before HIV-related illness would be expected to occur.
Our estimate of the risk of transmitting HIV by the transfusion of screened blood is smaller than earlier estimates,10,18-22 for several reasons. Most important, our estimate is based on the average 25-day window period that exists given contemporary recombinant, protein-based enzyme immunosorbent assays. Earlier studies of donations to the American Red Cross, based on estimated window periods of 56 days10 and 45 days18 with enzyme immunosorbent assays using whole-virus lysate, reported risks of HIV transmission of 1 in 153,000 and 1 in 225,000 donations, respectively. Second, our lower estimate of risk may be due in part to the use of a safer donor pool. Since the start of HIV-antibody testing of the blood supply, the seroprevalence of HIV among both first-time and repeat donors has declined annually, probably because of the recruitment of low-risk donors, the questioning of prospective donors,23 and the exclusion of donors who test positive on laboratory screening tests. Third, our calculations were based on data for donations in service regions of the American National Red Cross across the United States. Other studies, using estimates based on smaller areas with a higher incidence of HIV, reported that from 1 in 68,000 to 1 in 82,000 blood donations may transmit HIV.20,21 Because our estimate was based on the window period associated with the use of contemporary enzyme immunosorbent assays, large numbers of donations, and areas with both high and low risks of HIV infection, it is more representative than previous estimates of the risk of HIV transmission by transfusion in the United States.
Although the probability of window-period donations varied regionally in our study, that probability was either very small or below our level of detection in nearly every region. Regional variation in the incidence of transfusion-associated acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) has been reported previously and is strongly correlated with the regional incidence of AIDS in the general population.1
Our estimate of the risk of transmission of HIV by the transfusion of screened blood has several limitations. First, the proportion of donations made during the window period that test positive on screening tests other than the HIV-antibody test cannot be determined. Second, our calculations of risk were based on data from the service regions of the American National Red Cross, and we do not know whether this risk is representative of that in other centers. Third, the interpretation of data from any one region is limited by the very small number of HIV-positive donations and the wide confidence limits of the risk estimate. Fourth, our estimate of the incidence of HIV in repeat donors assumes that all donors who seroconvert return to make a seropositive donation; donors who do not do so may have transmitted HIV in their donation before seroconversion but would not have been included in our analysis. Finally, the incidence of HIV among first-time donors cannot be measured; our calculations of risk relied on a 1985 estimate indicating that the incidence among first-time donors was 1.8 times that among repeat donors. The validity of this assumption is supported by a more recent study of HIV-positive blood donors in France who had “seroconverting” patterns on the Western blot assay (i.e., they were HIV-positive but did not have antibodies to p34 antigen or glycoprotein 41).24 Although the absence of these bands may not always indicate recent seroconversion, first-time donors were 2.5 times more likely than repeat donors to have such patterns on the Western blot assay.
The probability that an infectious unit would not be identified as such because of a laboratory error was estimated to be 1 in 2.6 million.11-14 Although other studies have reported lower error rates,25,26 our use of a higher rate still results in the conclusion that laboratory error made a small contribution to the overall risk.
The FDA and others have been considering new genetic techniques for further reducing the risk of transmitting HIV infection by the transfusion of blood donated during the window period,27 and the FDA recently recommended testing all blood donations for HIV p24 antigen. Because the risk of transmitting HIV by transfusion is very small, new interventions will be of decreasing benefit, particularly in areas where the probability of a window-period donation is too small to be quantitated. On the basis of the estimated shortening of this period by testing for p24 antigen6,28 and our estimate of the risk of an HIV-infectious donation, we would expect p24 antigen testing to detect from 4 to 6 infectious units (that would not be removed by other screening tests) among the 12 million donated nationally each year. Implementing new techniques will require consideration of the cost of testing 12 million donations a year, will raise the issue of counseling and excluding donors who have false positive test results, and may attract high-risk donors who seek testing by a more sensitive test than is routinely offered. With a defined estimate of the risk associated with the transfusion of screened blood, we are better equipped to evaluate new techniques and make informed therapeutic and programmatic decisions to reduce HIV transmission by blood transfusion.
The use of trade names is for identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the Public Health Service or the Department of Health and Human Services.
Source Information
From the HIV Seroepidemiology Branch (E.M.L., R.S.J., L.R.P.) and the Statistics and Data Management Branch (G.A.S.), Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta; the Orkand Corporation, Atlanta (V.P.R.); and the Jerome H. Holland Laboratory, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Md. (J.A.-G., R.Y.D., W.F.L., E.P.N.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Lackritz at the Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, Mailstop E-46, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333.
- References
References
1
Selik RM ,Ward JW ,Buehler JW . Demographic differences in cumulative incidence rates of transfusion-associated acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140:105-112
Web of Science | Medline2
Carson JL ,Russell LB ,Taragin MI ,Sonnenberg FA ,Duff AE ,Bauer S . The risks of blood transfusion: the relative influence of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and non-A, non-B hepatitis. Am J Med 1992;92:45-52
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline3
Donahue JG ,Nelson KE ,Munoz A , et al. Transmission of HIV by transfusion of screened blood. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1709-1709
Web of Science | Medline4
Surgenor DM ,Wallace EL ,Hao SHS ,Chapman RH . Collection and transfusion of blood in the United States, 1982-1988. N Engl J Med 1990;322:1646-1651
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline5
Petersen LR ,satten GA ,Dodd R , et al. Duration of time from onset of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectiousness to development of detectable antibody. Transfusion 1994;34:283-289
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline6
Busch MP ,Lee LLJ ,Satten GA , et al. Time course of detection of viral and serologic markers preceding human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seroconversion: implications for screening of blood and tissue donors. Transfusion 1995;35:91-97
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline7
Kleinman S . The significance of HIV-1-indeterminate Western blot results in blood donor populations. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1990;114:298-303
Web of Science | Medline8
Jackson JB ,MacDonald KL ,Caldwell J , et al. Absence of HIV infection in blood donors with indeterminate Western blot tests for antibody to HIV-1. N Engl J Med 1990;322:217-222
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline9
Dock NL ,Kleinman SH ,Rayfield MA ,Schable CA ,Williams AE ,Dodd RY . Human immunodeficiency virus infection and indeterminate Western blot patterns. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:525-530
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline10
Cumming PD ,Wallace EL ,Schorr JB ,Dodd RY . Exposure of patients to human immunodeficiency virus through the transfusion of blood components that test antibody-negative. N Engl J Med 1989;321:941-946
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline11
Kleinman SH ,Niland JC ,Azen SP , et al. Prevalence of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 among blood donors prior to screening. Transfusion 1989;29:572-580
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline12
Linden JV ,Kaplan HS . Transfusion errors: causes and effects. Transfus Med Rev 1994;8:169-183
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline13
Linden JV . Error contributes to the risk of transmissible disease. Transfusion 1994;34:1016-1016
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline14
Schalla WO, Blumer SO, Taylor RN, et al. Split patient specimens: achieving a more accurate measure of HIV-antibody test performance. In: Program and abstracts of the Second National Conference on Human Retroviruses and Related Infections, Washington, D.C., January 29–February 2, 1995. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1995:120. abstract.
15
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National HIV serosurveillance summary: results through 1992. Vol. 3. Atlanta: Department of Health and Human Services, 1994.
16
Vamvakas EC ,Taswell HF . Long-term survival after blood transfusion. Transfusion 1994;34:471-477
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline17
Kalbfleisch JD ,Lawless JF . Estimating the incubation time distribution and expected number of cases of transfusion-associated acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Transfusion 1989;29:672-676
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline18
Petersen L, Satten G, Dodd R, HIV Lookback Study Group. Time period from infectiousness as blood donor to development of detectable antibody and the risk of HIV transmission from transfusion of screened blood. In: Program and oral abstracts of the Eighth International Conference on AIDS/Third STD World Congress, Amsterdam, July 19–24, 1992. Vol. 1. amsterdam: CONGREX, 1992:Mo23. abstract.
19
Ward JW ,Holmberg SD ,Allen JR , et al. Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by blood transfusions screened as negative for HIV antibody. N Engl J Med 1988;318:473-478
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline20
Kleinman S ,Secord K . Risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission by anti-HIV negative blood: estimates using the lookback methodology. Transfusion 1988;28:499-501
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline21
Busch MP ,Eble BE ,Khayam-Bashi H , et al. Evaluation of screened blood donations for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection by culture and DNA amplification of pooled cells. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1-5
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline22
Cohen ND ,Munoz A ,Reitz BA , et al. Transmission of retroviruses by transfusion of screened blood in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1172-1176
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline23
Johnson ES ,Doll LS ,Satten GA , et al. Direct oral questions to blood donors: the impact on screening for human immunodeficiency virus. Transfusion 1994;34:769-774
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline24
Courouce AM , le Groupe de travail Retrovirusde_la_Societe Nationale de Transfusion Sanguine. Séropositivité VIH chez les donneurs de sang de 1990 à 1992: prévalence, estimation du risque résiduel d'infections transfusionnelles et épidémiologie. Rev Fr Transfus Hemobiol 1993;36:327-337
Medline25
Young FE . Efficacy of new tests and the safety of the blood supply. Transfusion 1990;30:4-5
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline26
Dodd RY. Adverse consequences of blood transfusion: quantitative risk estimates. In: Nance ST, ed. Blood supply: risks, perceptions, and prospects for the future. Bethesda, Md.: American Association of Blood Banks, 1994:1-24.
27
Roberts CR ,Longfield JN ,Platte RC ,Zielmanski KP ,Wages J ,Fowler A . Transfusion-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from screened antibody-negative blood donors. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1994;118:1188-1192
Web of Science | Medline28
Busch MP. Incidence of infectious disease markers in blood donors: implications for residual risk of viral transmission by transfusion. In: Program and abstracts of the National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference on Infectious Disease Testing for Blood Transfusions, Bethesda, Md., January 9–11, 1995. Washington, D.C.: National Institutes of Health, 1995:29-30. abstract.
- Citing Articles (132)
Citing Articles
1
2011. Transfusion-Transmitted Diseases. , 414-445.
CrossRef2
Sheila F. O'Brien, Shimian Zou, Syria Laperche, Lisa J. Brant, Clive R. Seed, Steven H. Kleinman. (2011) Surveillance of Transfusion-Transmissible Infections. Transfusion Medicine Reviews
CrossRef3
J McCullough. 2011. Transfusion medicine for pathologists. , 619-639.
CrossRef4
S. V. Basavaraju, J. Mwangi, J. Nyamongo, C. Zeh, D. Kimani, R. W. Shiraishi, R. Madoda, J. A. Okonji, W. Sugut, S. Ongwae, J. P. Pitman, L. H. Marum. (2010) Reduced risk of transfusion-transmitted HIV in Kenya through centrally co-ordinated blood centres, stringent donor selection and effective p24 antigen-HIV antibody screening. Vox Sanguinis 99:3, 212-219
CrossRef5
Rachel L. Chin. (2010) Postexposure Prophylaxis for HIV. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 28:2, 421-429
CrossRef6
Steven H. Kleinman, Nico Lelie, Michael P. Busch. (2009) Infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus-1, hepatitis C virus, and hepatitis B virus and risk of transmission by transfusion. Transfusion 49:11, 2454-2489
CrossRef7
Dong Hee Whang, Tae Hyun Um, Mina Ha. (2009) Perception of the Risks of Blood Transfusion in Koreans. The Korean Journal of Laboratory Medicine 29:6, 570
CrossRef8
H.M. Jalalian, L.A. Latiff, S.T. Syed Hassan, P. Hanachi, M. Othman. (2008) Application of Internet and Information Technology in Recruitment of Safe Blood Donors. Journal of Applied Sciences 8:24, 4684-4688
CrossRef9
Joseph Ahn, Stanley M. Cohen. (2008) Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus through liver transplantation. Liver Transplantation 14:11, 1603-1608
CrossRef10
Shimian Zou, Chyang T. Fang, Roger Y. Dodd. (2008) A method for estimating incidence rate of infectious diseases among first-time blood donors. Transfusion 48:9, 1827-1832
CrossRef11
(2008) Blood supply safety: an NHLBI perspective. Transfusion 48:8, 1541-1544
CrossRef12
Josiane Pillonel, Francis Barin, Syria Laperche, Pascale Bernillon, Stéphane Le Vu, Sylvie Brunet, Damien Thierry, Jean-Claude Desenclos, . (2008) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 incidence among blood donors in France, 1992 through 2006: use of an immunoassay to identify recent infections. Transfusion 48:8, 1567-1575
CrossRef13
Meredith K. Martin-Johnston, Olanma Y. Okoji, Alicia Armstrong. (2008) Therapeutic Amenorrhea in Patients at Risk for Thrombocytopenia. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 63:6, 395-402
CrossRef14
Eun-Young Kim, Jennifer Stanton, Bette TM Korber, Kendall Krebs, Derek Bogdan, Kevin Kunstman, Samuel Wu, John P Phair, Chad A Mirkin, Steven M Wolinsky. (2008) Detection of HIV-1 p24 Gag in plasma by a nanoparticle-based bio-barcode-amplification method. Nanomedicine 3:3, 293-303
CrossRef15
Diana Diesen, Jonathan S. Stamler. (2007) S-Nitrosylation and PEGylation of hemoglobin: Toward a blood substitute that recapitulates blood. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 42:5, 921-923
CrossRef16
G. Zahariadis, S. S. Plitt, S. O'Brien, Q. -L. Yi, W. Fan, J. K. Preiksaitis. (2007) Prevalence and Estimated Incidence of Blood-Borne Viral Pathogen Infection in Organ and Tissue Donors from Northern Alberta. American Journal of Transplantation 7:1, 226-234
CrossRef17
A. Katsoulidou, Z. Moschidis, V. Sypsa, M. Chini, G. V. Papatheodoridis, N. C Tassopoulos, K. Mimidis, A. Karafoulidou, A. Hatzakis. (2007) Analytical and clinical sensitivity of the Procleix Ultrio HIV-1/HCV/HBV assay in samples with a low viral load. Vox Sanguinis 92:1, 8-14
CrossRef18
K MANAVI. (2006) A review on infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology 20:6, 923-940
CrossRef19
Michael P. Busch. (2006) Transfusion-transmitted viral infections: building bridges to transfusion medicine to reduce risks and understand epidemiology and pathogenesis. Transfusion 46:9, 1624-1640
CrossRef20
Gregory A. Nuttall, Nicole Henderson, Michael Quinn, Clay Blair, Layne Summers, Brent A. Williams, William C. Oliver, Paula J. Santrach. (2006) Excessive Bleeding and Transfusion in a Prior Cardiac Surgery is Associated with Excessive Bleeding and Transfusion in the Next Surgery. Anesthesia & Analgesia 102:4, 1012-1017
CrossRef21
Gregory Fischer, Linda Shore-Lesserson. 2006. Hematologic Diseases. , 359-376.
CrossRef22
Carlos del Rio. (2005) AIDS: The Second Wave. Archives of Medical Research 36:6, 682-688
CrossRef23
Baoguang Wang, G.B. Schreiber, S.A. Glynn, Steven Kleinman, D.J. Wright, E.L. Murphy, M.P. Busch, . (2005) Does prevalence of transfusion-transmissible viral infection reflect corresponding incidence in United States blood donors?. Transfusion 45:7, 1089-1096
CrossRef24
Lawrence T. Goodnough. (2005) Risks of Blood Transfusion. Anesthesiology Clinics of North America 23:2, 241-252
CrossRef25
S. Vansteelandt, E. Goetghebeur, I. Thomas, E. Mathys, F. Van Loock. (2005) On the viral safety of plasma pools and plasma derivatives. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 168:2, 345-363
CrossRef26
Michael P. Busch, Simone A. Glynn, Susan L. Stramer, D. Michael Strong, Sally Caglioti, David J. Wright, Brandee Pappalardo, Steven H. Kleinman, . (2005) A new strategy for estimating risks of transfusion-transmitted viral infections based on rates of detection of recently infected donors. Transfusion 45:2, 254-264
CrossRef27
R.R. Sharma, P.G. Subramanian, S. Kumar, Malkiat Singh, Meera Sharma, S.K. Agnihotri, N. Marwaha. (2004) Evaluation of Storage Conditions and Bacterial Proliferation in Blood Components. Laboratory Medicine 35:10, 616-619
CrossRef28
Zou, Shimian, Dodd, Roger Y., Stramer, Susan L., Strong, D. Michael, . (2004) Probability of Viremia with HBV, HCV, HIV, and HTLV among Tissue Donors in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine 351:8, 751-759
Full Text29
Ruby Phelps, Kenneth Robbins, Thomas Liberti, Ana Machuca, German Leparc, Mary Chamberland, Marcia Kalish, Indira Hewlett, Thomas Folks, Lisa M. Lee, Matthew McKenna. (2004) Window-period human immunodeficiency virus transmission to two recipients by an adolescent blood donor. Transfusion 44:6, 929-933
CrossRef30
A Gerson Greenburg, Hae W Kim. (2004) Use of an oxygen therapeutic as an adjunct to intraoperative autologous donation to reduce transfusion requirements in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery1 1Members of the Hemolink Study Group are listed in Appendix.. Journal of the American College of Surgeons 198:3, 373-383
CrossRef31
Antigoni S. Katsoulidou, Zissis M. Moschidis, Renia E. Gialeraki, Dimitrios N. Paraskevis, Vana A. Sypsa, Marios C. Lazanas, Nicholaos C. Tassopoulos, Mina A. Psichogiou, John N. Boletis, Anastasia S. Karafoulidou, Angelos E. Hatzakis. (2004) Clinical evaluation of an HIV-1 and HCV assay and demonstration of significant reduction of the HCV detection window before seroconversion. Transfusion 44:1, 59-66
CrossRef32
Lawrence T. Goodnough. (2003) Risks of blood transfusion. Critical Care Medicine 31:Supplement, S678-S686
CrossRef33
Celia C. D'Errico, Hamish M. Munro, Steven R. Buchman, Deborah Wagner, Karin M. Muraszko. (2003) Efficacy of aprotinin in children undergoing craniofacial surgery. Journal of Neurosurgery 99:2, 287-290
CrossRef34
Giuseppe Aprili, Giorgio Gandini, Pierluigi Piccoli, Fausto Bressan, Marzia De Gironcoli, Romualdo Mazzi, Saverio G. Parisi, Gianluca Gessoni, Giorgio Marchiori, Massimo Franchini. (2003) Detection of an early HIV-1 infection by HIV RNA testing in an Italian blood donor during the preseroconversion window period. Transfusion 43:7, 848-852
CrossRef35
M. Koehler, J. Riggert, T. Legler, W.R. Mayr, D.W.M. Schwartz, K.H. Heermann. (2003) Risk of transfusion-transmitted infections by NAT-negative blood. Transfusion 43:6, 830-831
CrossRef36
B. Wang, G.B. Schreiber, S.A. Glynn, C.C. Nass, J.W. Smith, M.J. Higgins, S.T. Hutching, D.J. Wright, R.L. McEntire, E.L. Murphy for the Retrovirus Epidemiology Don. (2003) Prevalence of transfusion-transmissible viral infections in first-time US blood donors by donation site. Transfusion 43:6, 705-712
CrossRef37
E. A. Adejuyigbe, M. A. Durosinmi, F. N. Onyia, O. O. Adeodu. (2003) Blood transfusion related paediatric HIV/AIDS in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. AIDS Care 15:3, 329-335
CrossRef38
K. Soldan, K. Sinka. (2003) Evaluation of the de-selection of men who have had sex with men from blood donation in England. Vox Sanguinis 84:4, 265-273
CrossRef39
K. Soldan, J. A. J. Barbara, M. E. Ramsay, A. J. Hall. (2003) Estimation of the risk of hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus infectious donations entering the blood supply in England, 1993-2001. Vox Sanguinis 84:4, 274-286
CrossRef40
Allyn K. Nakashima, Patricia L. Fleming. (2003) HIV/AIDS Surveillance in the United States, 1981–2001. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32, S68-S85
CrossRef41
Sheldon Goldstein, David Amar. (2003) Pharmacotherapeutic Considerations in Anesthesia. Heart Disease 5:1, 34-48
CrossRef42
G. A. Nuttall, M. D. Cragun, D. L. Hill, T. J. Morris, P. A. Decker, M. L. Blute, D. E. Patterson, D. O. Warner. (2002) Radical Retropubic Prostatectomy and Blood Transfusion. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 77:12, 1301-1305
CrossRef43
Vu Minh Quan, Richard W. Steketee, Linda Valleroy, Hillard Weinstock, John Karon, Robert Janssen. (2002) HIV Incidence in the United States, 1978–1999. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 31:2, 188-201
CrossRef44
Simone A. Glynn, Steven H. Kleinman, David J. Wright, Michael P. Busch, . (2002) International application of the Incidence Rate/Window Period model. Transfusion 42:8, 966-972
CrossRef45
Claudio Velati, Luisa Romano, Lorella Baruffi, Marco Pappalettera, Vittorio Carreri, Alessandro R. Zanetti. (2002) Residual risk of transfusion-transmitted HCV and HIV infections by antibody-screened blood in Italy. Transfusion 42:8, 989-993
CrossRef46
Manuel Alvarez, Salvador Oyonarte, P. M. Rodriguez, J. M. Hernandez. (2002) Estimated risk of transfusion-transmitted viral infections in Spain. Transfusion 42:8, 994-998
CrossRef47
J. T. F. Lau, J. Thomas, C. K. Lin. (2002) HIV-related behaviours among voluntary blood donors in Hong Kong. AIDS Care 14:4, 481-492
CrossRef48
Bijan S. Kheirabadi, Aida Field-Ridley, Rebecca Pearson, Martin MacPhee, William Drohan, David Tuthill. (2002) Comparative Study of the Efficacy of the Common Topical Hemostatic Agents with Fibrin Sealant in a Rabbit Aortic Anastomosis Model. Journal of Surgical Research 106:1, 99-107
CrossRef49
Shaun N. Scott, Thomas J. Boeve, Timothy M. McCulloch, Kari A. Fitzpatrick, Lucy H. Karnell. (2002) The Effects of Epoetin Alfa on Transfusion Requirements in Head and Neck Cancer Patients: A Prospective, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study. The Laryngoscope 112:7, 1221-1229
CrossRef50
Michael G. Vitale, Douglas E. Levy, Maxwell C. Park, Hyunok Choi, Julie C. Choe, David P. Roye. (2002) Quantifying risk of transfusion in children undergoing spine surgery. The Spine Journal 2:3, 166-172
CrossRef51
M. E. Tosti, S. Solinas, D. Prati, L. Salvaneschi, M. Manca, M. Francesconi, M. Ciuffreda, G. Girelli, A. Mele. (2002) An estimate of the current risk of transmitting blood-borne infections through blood transfusion in Italy. British Journal of Haematology 117:1, 215-219
CrossRef52
Paul D. Mintz, MD. (2001) NISHOT. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 116:6, 802-805
CrossRef53
&NA;. (2001) Recombinant human erythropoietin is effective in cancer-related anaemia, but is it cost effective?. Drugs & Therapy Perspectives 17:21, 8-12
CrossRef54
Mark R Jackson. (2001) Fibrin sealants in surgical practice: An overview. The American Journal of Surgery 182:2, S1-S7
CrossRef55
MARGARET KHOURY, ANDREA KOVACS. (2001) Pediatric HIV Infection. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 44:2, 243-275
CrossRef56
Eleptheria K. Zervou, Georgios N. Dalekos, Demetra S. Boumba, Epameinondas V. Tsianos. (2001) Value of anti-HBc screening of blood donorsfor prevention of HBV infection: results of a 3-year prospective study in Northwestern Greece. Transfusion 41:5, 652-658
CrossRef57
Gregory A. Nuttall, William C. Oliver, Paula J. Santrach, Sandra Bryant, Joseph A. Dearani, Hartzell V. Schaff, Mark H. Ereth. (2001) Efficacy of a Simple Intraoperative Transfusion Algorithm for Nonerythrocyte Component Utilization after Cardiopulmonary Bypass. Anesthesiology 94:5, 773-781
CrossRef58
J. Klewer, H. Seelbach, J. Kugler. (2001) Poor assessment of HIV epidemiology and occupational HIV transmission risk by medical students. Journal of Hospital Infection 47:4, 328-331
CrossRef59
Christopher Nervi, Richard L. Gamelli, David G. Greenhalgh, Arnold Luterman, John F. Hansbrough, Bruce M. Achauer, Edward D. Gomperts, Martin Lee, Laura Navalta, Tashiana R. Cruciani. (2001) A Multicenter Clinical Trial to Evaluate the Topical Hemostatic Efficacy of Fibrin Sealant in Burn Patients. Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation 22:2, 99-103
CrossRef60
W. L. Chandler, M. A. Patel, L. Gravelle, L. O. Soltow, K. Lewis, P. D. Bishop, B. D. Spiess. (2001) Factor XIIIA and clot strength after cardiopulmonary bypass. Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis 12:2, 101-108
CrossRef61
George John Despotis, Lawrence Tim Goodnough. (2001) Current and Evolving Issues in Transfusion Therapy. ASA Refresher Courses in Anesthesiology 29:1, 97-112
CrossRef62
Shyamal Premaratne, Aziz M Razzuk, Deepthi R Premaratne, Mark M Mugiishi, Nahidh W Hasaniya, Amanda F Behling. (2001) Effects of Platelet Transfusion on Post Cardiopulmonary Bypass Bleeding.. Japanese Heart Journal 42:4, 425-433
CrossRef63
Chandra Viswanathan. (2001) Are our donors safe?. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics 68:1, 69-75
CrossRef64
Fred Darr. (2000) Evaluating risk in human plasma transfusion. Journal of Healthcare Risk Management 20:2, 12-21
CrossRef65
Andreas Engert. (2000) Recombinant Human Erythropoietin as an Alternative to Blood Transfusion in Cancer-Related Anaemia. Disease Management and Health Outcomes 8:5, 259-272
CrossRef66
OLEG SHVARTS, KE-HUNG TSUI, ROBERT B. SMITH, JEAN B. de KERNION, ARIE BELLDEGRUN. (2000) BLOOD LOSS AND THE NEED FOR TRANSFUSION IN PATIENTS WHO UNDERGO PARTIAL OR RADICAL NEPHRECTOMY FOR RENAL CELL CARCINOMA. The Journal of Urology1160-1163
CrossRef67
OLEG SHVARTS, KE-HUNG TSUI, ROBERT B. SMITH, JEAN B. deKERNION, ARIE BELLDEGRUN. (2000) BLOOD LOSS AND THE NEED FOR TRANSFUSION IN PATIENTS WHO UNDERGO PARTIAL OR RADICAL NEPHRECTOMY FOR RENAL CELL CARCINOMA. The Journal of Urology 164:4, 1160-1163
CrossRef68
Scott Kellerman, Pascale Wortley, Patricia Fleming. (2000) The changing epidemic of HIV. Current Infectious Disease Reports 2:5, 457-465
CrossRef69
Gabriel A. Schmunis, Fabio Zicker, Elsa L. Segura, Ana E. del Pozo. (2000) Transfusion-transmitted infectious diseases in Argentina, 1995 through 1997. Transfusion 40:9, 1048-1053
CrossRef70
Jeffrey L. Carson, Richard C Reynolds. (2000) Transfusion Mortality and Morbidity in Orthopedic Surgery. Transfusion Alternatives in Transfusion Medicine 2:3, 16-20
CrossRef71
M.L. Finucane, P. Slovic, C.K. Mertz. (2000) Public perception of the risk ofblood transfusion. Transfusion 40:8, 1017-1022
CrossRef72
Marcela Contreras, John A. Barbara. (2000) Infections Related to Red Cell Transfusions Including Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease. Transfusion Alternatives in Transfusion Medicine 2:3, 5-12
CrossRef73
Scott C Silvestry, Peter K Smith. (2000) Current status of cardiac surgery in the abciximab-treated patient. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery 70:2, S12-S19
CrossRef74
Douglas Coyle, Karen M. Lee, Dean A. Fergusson, Andreas Laupacis. (2000) Cost Effectiveness of Epoetin-?? to Augment Preoperative Autologous Blood Donation in Elective Cardiac Surgery. PharmacoEconomics 18:2, 161-171
CrossRef75
Evatt, Austin, Leon, Ruiz-Saez, de Bosch. (2000) Predicting the long-term risk of HIV exposure by cryoprecipitate. Haemophilia 6:s1, 128-132
CrossRef76
Mirabai Chockalingam, Lorraine Clarke, William M. McCormack. (2000) HIV Infection with Negative Serological Tests: Development of Seropositivity in Association with Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 14:6, 305-308
CrossRef77
K. Muller-Breitkreutz. (2000) Results of Viral Marker Screening of Unpaid Blood Donations and Probability of Window Period Donations in 1997. Vox Sanguinis 78:3, 149-157
CrossRef78
Jeffrey McCullough. (2000) Current issues with platelet transfusion in patients with cancer. Seminars in Hematology 37, 3-10
CrossRef79
Jill E. Knutson, Jane A. Deering, Frank W. Hall, Gregory A. Nuttall, Darrell R. Schroeder, Roger D. White, Charles J. Mullany. (2000) Does Intraoperative Hetastarch Administration Increase Blood Loss and Transfusion Requirements After Cardiac Surgery?. Anesthesia & Analgesia 9:4, 801-807
CrossRef80
Jill E. Knutson, Jane A. Deering, Frank W. Hall, Gregory A. Nuttall, Darrell R. Schroeder, Roger D. White, Charles J. Mullany. (2000) Does Intraoperative Hetastarch Administration Increase Blood Loss and Transfusion Requirements After Cardiac Surgery?. Anesthesia & Analgesia 90:4, 801-807
CrossRef81
Maurice L. Lamy, Elaine K. Daily, Jean-François Brichant, Robert P. Larbuisson, Roland H. Demeyere, Eugene A. Vandermeersch, Jean-Jacques Lehot, Malcolm R. Parsloe, John C. Berridge, Colin J. Sinclair, Jean-François Baron, Robert J. Przybelski. (2000) Randomized Trial of Diaspirin Cross-linked Hemoglobin Solution as an Alternative to Blood Transfusion after Cardiac Surgery. Anesthesiology 92:3, 646-656
CrossRef82
Gregory A. Nuttall, Terese T. Horlocker, Paula J. Santrach, William C. Oliver, Mark B. Dekutoski, Sandra Bryant. (2000) Predictors of Blood Transfusions in Spinal Instrumentation and Fusion Surgery. Spine 25:5, 596-601
CrossRef83
Lisa C. Richardson, Bruce L. Evatt. (2000) Risk of Hepatitis A virus infection in persons with hemophilia receiving plasma-derived products. Transfusion Medicine Reviews 14:1, 64-73
CrossRef84
Roger Y Dodd. (2000) Current viral risks of blood and blood products. Annals of Medicine 32:7, 469-474
CrossRef85
J. E. Groopman, L. M. Itri. (1999) Chemotherapy-Induced Anemia in Adults: Incidence and Treatment. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91:19, 1616-1634
CrossRef86
Evatt, Austin, Leon, Ruiz-Saez, De Bosch. (1999) Haemophilia therapy: assessing the cumulative risk of HIV exposure by cryoprecipitate. Haemophilia 5:5, 295-300
CrossRef87
Michael Busch, Mary Chamberland, Jay Epstein, Steven Kleinman, Rima Khabbaz, George Nemo. (1999) Oversight and Monitoring of Blood Safety in the United States. Vox Sanguinis 77:2, 67-76
CrossRef88
R. J. Benjamin, P. Rojas, S. Christmas, J. Neal, S. Broughton, C. Burgio, B. Barrett, W.H. Churchill. (1999) Plateletpheresis efficiency: a comparison of the Spectra LRS and AMICUS separators. Transfusion 39:8, 895-899
CrossRef89
F.A. Sonnenberg, P. Gregory, R. Yomtovian, L.B. Russell, W. Tierney, M. Kosmin, J.L. Carson. (1999) The cost-effectiveness of autologous transfusion revisited: implications of an increased risk of bacterialinfection with allogeneic transfusion. Transfusion 39:8, 808-817
CrossRef90
K.K. Murthy, D.R. Henrard, J.W. Eichberg, K.E. Cobb, M.P. Busch, J.P. Allain, H.J. Alter. (1999) Redefining the HIV-infectious window period in the chimpanzee model: evidence to suggest that viral nucleic acid testing can prevent blood-borne transmission. Transfusion 39:7, 688-693
CrossRef91
G. Ramsey, L. A. Sherman. (1999) Blood component recalls in the United States. Transfusion 39:5, 473-478
CrossRef92
David G. Greenhalgh, Richard L. Gamelli, Martin Lee, Mehan Delavari, John B. Lynch, John F. Hansbrough, Bruce M. Achauer, Sidney F. Miller, Martin MacPhee, Gordon L. Bray. (1999) Multicenter Trial to Evaluate the Safety and Potential Efficacy of Pooled Human Fibrin Sealant for the Treatment of Burn Wounds. The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 46:3, 433-440
CrossRef93
Goodnough, Lawrence T., Brecher, Mark E., Kanter, Michael H., AuBuchon, James P., . (1999) Transfusion Medicine — Blood Transfusion. New England Journal of Medicine 340:6, 438-447
Full Text94
Patrick S. Sullivan, Charles Schable, Walter Koch, Ann N. Do, Thomas Spira, Amy Lansky, Dennis Ellenberger, Renu B. Lal, Cheryl Hyer, Roger Davis, Megan Marx, Sindy Paul, James Kent, Richard Armor, Jeff McFarland, JoAnn Lafontaine, Susan Mottice, Sharon A. Cassol, Nelson Michael. (1999) Persistently negative HIV-1 antibody enzyme immunoassay screening results for patients with HIV-1 infection and AIDS: serologic, clinical, and virologic results. AIDS 13:1, 89-96
CrossRef95
Anne C. E. Moor, Tom M. A. R. Dubbelman, John VanSteveninck, Anneke Brand. (1999) Transfusion-transmitted diseases: risks, prevention and perspectives. European Journal of Haematology 62:1, 1-18
CrossRef96
Yaniv Barkana, Michael Stein, Ron Maor, Mauricio Lynn, Arieh Eldad. (1999) Prehospital Blood Transfusion in Prolonged Evacuation. The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 46:1, 176-180
CrossRef97
Willi Kurt Roth, Marijke Weber, Erhard Seifried. (1999) Feasibility and efficacy of routine PCR screening of blood donations for hepatitis C virus, hepatitis B virus, and HIV-1 in a blood-bank setting. The Lancet 353:9150, 359-363
CrossRef98
Nicolas Burin des Roziers, Joliette Coste, Anne-Marie Courouce, Frederic Bibollet-Ruche, Alain Guillard, Olivier Nasr. (1998) Detection of HIV-1 RNA in Two Consecutive Blood Donations Screened Negative for HIV Antibodies. Vox Sanguinis 75:4, 298-302
CrossRef99
Jeffrey L. Carson, Arnold Y. Chen. (1998) In Search of the Transfusion Trigger. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 357, 30-35
CrossRef100
Eberhard Fiebig. (1998) Safety of the Blood Supply. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 357, 6-18
CrossRef101
Omar Bagasra, Robert M. Steiner, Samir K. Ballas, Oswaldo Castro, Geethanjali Dornadula, Stephen Embury, Donald Jungkind, Lisa Bobroski, Abdullah Kutlar, Sandra Burchott. (1998) Viral Burden and Disease Progression in HIV-1–Infected Patients with Sickle Cell Anemia. American Journal of Hematology 59:3, 199-207
CrossRef102
Laupacis, Fergusson, . (1998) Erythropoietin to minimize perioperative blood transfusion: a systematic review of randomized trials. Transfusion Medicine 8:4, 309-317
CrossRef103
S. Yerly, M. Pedrocchi, L. Perrin. (1998) The use of polymerase chain reaction in plasma pools for the concomitant detection of hepatitis C virus and HIV type 1 RNA. Transfusion 38:10, 908-914
CrossRef104
Douglas R. Migden, G. Richard Braen. (1998) The Jehovah's Witness Blood Refusal Card: Ethical and Medicolegal Considerations for Emergency Physicians. Academic Emergency Medicine 5:8, 815-824
CrossRef105
Stephanie J. Lee, Bengt Liljas, Peter J. Neumann, Milton C. Weinstein, Magnus Johannesson. (1998) The Impact of Risk Information on Patients' Willingness to Pay for Autologous Blood Donation. Medical Care 36:8, 1162-1173
CrossRef106
Murphy, Busch, Tong, Cornett, Vyas. (1998) A prospective study of the risk of transfusion-acquired viral infections. Transfusion Medicine 8:3, 173-178
CrossRef107
Edward H Kaplan. (1998) Israel's ban on use of Ethiopians' blood: how many infectious donations were prevented?. The Lancet 351:9109, 1127-1128
CrossRef108
Edward H. Kaplan, Enat Kedem, Shimon Pollack. (1998) HIV Incidence in Ethiopian Immigrants to Israel. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 17:5, 465-469
CrossRef109
PAUL D. ZELENETZ, MARCIA E. EPSTEIN. (1998) HIV in the Elderly. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 12:4, 255-262
CrossRef110
Mary Chamberland, Rima F. Khabbaz. (1998) EMERGING ISSUES IN BLOOD SAFETY. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 12:1, 217-229
CrossRef111
Pedro León, Miguel Jiménez, Pascual Barona, Luis Sierrasesúmaga. (1998) Recombinant human erythropoietin for the treatment of anemia in children with solid malignant tumors. Medical and Pediatric Oncology 30:2, 110-116
CrossRef112
James P. AuBuchon, Constance Pickard, Louise Herschel, James L. O'Connor, Eric Lee. (1998) Removal of Methylene Blue from Plasma via an Adsorbent Filter. Vox Sanguinis 74:1, 1-6
CrossRef113
Andreas Laupacis, Dean Fergusson. (1997) Drugs to Minimize Perioperative Blood Loss in Cardiac Surgery. Anesthesia & Analgesia 85:6, 1258-1267
CrossRef114
Mark H. Ereth, Gregory A. Nuttall, Jacinta T. Klindworth, Ian MacVeigh, Paula J. Santrach, Thomas A. Orszulak, W. Scott Harmsen, William C. Oliver. (1997) Does the Platelet-Activated Clotting Test (HemoSTATUS[registered sign]) Predict Blood Loss and Platelet Dysfunction Associated with Cardiopulmonary Bypass?. Anesthesia & Analgesia 85:2, 259-264
CrossRef115
Thomas S. Huber, Susan P. McGorray, Lori C. Carlton, Philip B. Irwin, Richard R. Flug, Timothy C. Flynn, James M. Seeger. (1997) Intraoperative autologous transfusion during elective infrarenal aortic reconstruction: A decision analysis model. Journal of Vascular Surgery 25:6, 984-994
CrossRef116
Meidee Goh, Celina G. Kleer, Pat Kielczewski, Kirk J. Wojno, Kyungmann Kim, Joseph E. Oesterling. (1997) Autologous blood donation prior to anatomical radical retropublic prostatectomy: is it necessary?. Urology 49:4, 569-574
CrossRef117
N. Mertes, M. Booke, H. Van Aken. (1997) Strategies to reduce the need for peri-operative blood transfusion. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 14:Supplement 14, 24-34
CrossRef118
Jeanne V. Linden, Harold S. Kaplan, Mark T. Murphy. (1997) Fatal Air Embolism Due to Perioperative Blood Recovery. Anesthesia & Analgesia 84:2, 422-426
CrossRef119
William McFarland, David Mvere, Wayne Shandera, Arthur Reingold. (1997) Epidemiology and Prevention of Transfusion-Associated Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa. Vox Sanguinis 72:2, 85-92
CrossRef120
Karen E. King, Paul M. Ness. (1996) TREATING ANEMIA. Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America 10:6, 1305-1320
CrossRef121
Celia C. D??Errico, Jay R. Shayevitz, Sarah J. Martindale, Ralph S. Mosca, Edward L. Bove. (1996) The Efficacy and Cost of Aprotinin in Children Undergoing Reoperative Open Heart Surgery. Anesthesia & Analgesia 83:6, 1193-1199
CrossRef122
Celia C. DʼErrico, Jay R. Shayevitz, Sarah J. Martindale, Ralph S. Mosca, Edward L. Bove. (1996) The Efficacy and Cost of Aprotinin in Children Undergoing Reoperative Open Heart Surgery. Anesthesia & Analgesia 83:6, 1193-1199
CrossRef123
S. J. Wagner, D. Robinette. (1996) Evaluation of swirling, pH, and glucose tests for the detection of bacterial contamination in platelet concentrates. Transfusion 36:11-12, 989-993
CrossRef124
Jeffrey L Carson, Amy Duff, Roy M Poses, Jesse A Berlin, Richard K Spence, Richard Trout, Helaine Noveck, Brian L Strom. (1996) Effect of anaemia and cardiovascular disease on surgical mortality and morbidity. The Lancet 348:9034, 1055-1060
CrossRef125
John R. Hess, Robert F. Reiss. (1996) Resuscitation and the limited utility of the present generation of blood substitutes. Transfusion Medicine Reviews 10:4, 276-285
CrossRef126
Schreiber, George B., Busch, Michael P., Kleinman, Steven H., Korelitz, James J., . (1996) The Risk of Transfusion-Transmitted Viral Infections. New England Journal of Medicine 334:26, 1685-1690
Full Text127
Holland, Paul V., . (1996) Viral Infections and the Blood Supply. New England Journal of Medicine 334:26, 1734-1735
Full Text128
(1996) The Risk of HIV Transmission by Screened Blood. New England Journal of Medicine 334:15, 992-993
Full Text129
(1996) Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. New England Journal of Medicine 334:14, 922-923
Full Text130
Richard B. Weiskopf. (1996) More on the Changing Indications for Transfusion of Blood and Blood Components during Anesthesia. Anesthesiology 84:3, 498-501
CrossRef131
&NA;. (1996) Practice Guidelines for Blood Component Therapy. Anesthesiology 84:3, 732-747
CrossRef132
ROGER Y. DODD. (1996) TRANSFUSION TRANSMITTED HIV. Vox Sanguinis 70:S3, 1-3
CrossRef
- Letters
