Original Article
Race, Sex, Drug Use, and Progression of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Disease
N Engl J Med 1995; 333:751-756September 21, 1995
- Abstract
Background
The rates of progression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and survival have been reported to differ among sociodemographic groups. It is unclear whether these differences reflect biologic differences or differences in access to medical care.
Methods
We measured disease progression and survival in a cohort of 1372 patients seropositive for HIV who were treated at a single urban center (median follow-up, 1.6 years). We calculated the rates of survival for the entire cohort and the rates of progression to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or death among the 740 patients who presented without AIDS. We used Cox proportional-hazards analysis to examine factors associated with progression to AIDS and death.
Results
Progression to AIDS or death was associated with a CD4 cell count of 201 to 350 per cubic millimeter (relative risk, 2.0; P<0.001), the presence of symptoms at base line (relative risk, 2.0; P<0.001), prior antiretroviral therapy (relative risk, 1.7; P = 0.003), and older age (relative risk per year of age, 1.02; P = 0.03). However, there was no relation between disease progression and sex, race, injection-drug use, income, level of education, or insurance status. In the entire cohort, a lower CD4 cell count, a diagnosis of AIDS, older age, and the receipt of antiretroviral therapy before enrollment were associated with an increased risk of death, whereas the use of prophylaxis against pneumocystis pneumonia, zidovudine use after enrollment, and having a job at base line were associated with lower risks of death. There was no significant difference in survival between men and women, blacks and whites, injection-drug users and those who did not use drugs, or patients whose median annual incomes were $5,000 or less and those whose incomes were more than $5,000.
Conclusions
Among patients with HIV infection who received medical care from a single urban center, there were no differences in disease progression or survival associated with sex, race, injection-drug use, or socioeconomic status. Differences found in other studies may reflect differences in the use of medical care.
Media in This Article
Figure 2
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Survival According to the Use of Antiretroviral Therapy (Primarily Zidovudine) before En-rollment and the CD4 Cell Count.Figure 1
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Survival According to the CD4 Cell Count and Sex (Panel A), Injection-Drug Use (Panel B), Race (Panel C), and Annual Income (Panel D).Article Activity
- Article
In the United States, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease is now a leading cause of death in adults 25 to 44 years old.1 A large population of patients with HIV infection in the United States are members of racial or ethnic minorities, and a growing proportion of patients are women.2,3 The differences in survival between blacks and whites, men and women, and drug users and those who do not use drugs have led to speculation that HIV disease progresses more rapidly in some demographic groups than in others.4-6 The clinical course of the disease is variable, however, and a number of therapeutic and other factors may influence the natural history of the infection.7-10 Although differences in survival might result from biologically diverse responses to HIV infection,11-13 differential access to medical care is another possible explanation for these findings.14 We have previously shown that blacks, women, and injection-drug users are significantly less likely to receive appropriate therapy for HIV infection.10,14 Whether providing medical care for all HIV-infected people can correct disparities in outcome is not known. A recent study in Canada, however, reported poor survival among HIV-infected patients with low incomes, in spite of presumably equal access to medical care.15
To examine the relation between demographic variables and survival among people with HIV infection receiving medical care, we analyzed data from the Johns Hopkins University HIV Clinic data base.14,16 This data base contains clinical, demographic, and socioeconomic information on a heterogeneous cohort of HIV-infected patients from an urban area who receive care at the Johns Hopkins HIV Clinic.
Methods
Patients and Data Collection
We analyzed data from a heterogeneous cohort of patients with HIV infection who presented for care at the Johns Hopkins HIV Clinic between July 1989 and April 1994. Patients in the cohort were those receiving ongoing medical care from the clinic; patients seen for only a single consultation who received no follow-up care at Johns Hopkins Hospital were excluded. All patients had serologically or clinically confirmed HIV infection and were enrolled in a longitudinal primary care program. All patients enrolling in the clinic during this period underwent a comprehensive base-line assessment, with collection of detailed demographic, social, behavioral, and clinical data. Information was obtained in structured interviews by social workers and clinicians using standardized forms. Data were abstracted from patients' charts and from the hospital's automated data bases at base line and every six months by trained monitors using standardized data-collection instruments. Items in the data abstraction included all base-line information and information on follow-up diagnoses, treatments, hospitalizations, and death. Definitions of disease progression were based on the 1993 revised surveillance case definition for the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) among adults and adolescents promulgated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),17 which classifies AIDS on the basis of the occurrence of specific indicator opportunistic diseases or a CD4 cell count of less than 200 per cubic millimeter. Medical records from other institutions where patients may have received care were routinely sought. Information on death was obtained from patients' charts and from a separate death registry maintained by the clinic that receives reports from families, other medical institutions, funeral homes, and local coroners. In addition, the names of patients whose vital status was unknown for more than 12 months were searched for in death records of the Maryland Bureau of Vital Records and the National Death Index. A nurse or physician checked the validity of the data in a sample of 10 percent of the patients, and systematic problems were identified and corrected for all patients. Complete follow-up was maintained for 86 percent of the cohort.
Statistical Analysis
The primary outcomes of interest were progression of disease and survival after enrollment in the clinic. The frequencies and distributions of base-line variables within demographic and clinical subgroups were compared with Fisher's exact test and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Comparisons of disease progression and survival were performed for demographic variables stratified according to initial CD4 cell counts with Kaplan–Meier estimates.18 Differences between groups were assessed by the log-rank test. A Cox proportional-hazards model was constructed to determine independent predictors of disease progression and death.19 Both fixed and time-dependent covariates were included in the model.20 The fixed covariates were the base-line demographic variables, whereas the time-dependent covariates were the use of antiretroviral therapy, the use of prophylaxis against pneumocystis pneumonia, and the CD4 cell count. For disease progression, we analyzed data on patients with initial CD4 cell counts above 200 per cubic millimeter who did not have a diagnosis of AIDS and used progression to AIDS or death as the dependent variable. For the survival analysis, we included all patients. The assumption of a constant risk ratio over time for the proportional-hazards analysis was tested and found to be valid for the variables modeled.
Results
Between July 1989 and April 1994, 1372 patients with HIV infection who underwent initial comprehensive evaluations and for whom follow-up data were available were entered in the data base. Follow-up was complete through October 1994, with 2170 person-years of observation and a median follow-up of 1.6 years. There were no significant differences in the length of follow-up or in loss to follow-up among demographic subgroups. The base-line demographic and clinical characteristics of the cohort are presented in Table 1Table 1
Base-Line Characteristics of the 1372 Patients in the Johns Hopkins HIV Clinic Cohort.. Thirty percent of the patients were women, 77 percent were black, and 21 percent were white. Risk factors for HIV included homosexual contact in 27 percent, injection-drug use in 29 percent, injection-drug use and sexual contact with an HIV-infected partner in 25 percent, heterosexual contact in 14 percent, and other risk factors in 5 percent. The median age was 34 years, with a range of 17 to 72 years. The median annual income of the cohort at presentation was $5,000, and the median level of education was 12 years. Fifty-four percent of the patients were insured by Medicaid or Medicare, 15 percent had private insurance, 25 percent had no insurance, and 6 percent had other types of health insurance.At enrollment CD4 cell counts were more than 500 per cubic millimeter in 25 percent of the patients, 351 to 500 per cubic millimeter in 18 percent, 201 to 350 per cubic millimeter in 18 percent, and <200 per cubic millimeter in 39 percent (Table 2Table 2
Clinical Characteristics of the Patients in the Johns Hopkins HIV Clinic Cohort.). According to the 1993 CDC surveillance case definition for AIDS, 46 percent of the patients had AIDS; 14 percent were symptomatic, with CD4 cell counts exceeding 200 per cubic millimeter; and 40 percent were asymptomatic, with CD4 cell counts exceeding 200 per cubic millimeter. Before enrollment in the clinic, 38 percent of the patients had been treated with zidovudine or another antiretroviral agent and 29 percent had received prophylaxis against pneumocystis pneumonia. As previously reported, black patients were significantly less likely than whites to have received these treatments before enrollment in the clinic, but the racial differences in drug therapy were eliminated within six months after enrollment.14 During follow-up, 70 percent of the patients received antiretroviral therapy and 34 percent received pneumocystis prophylaxis. Use of pneumocystis prophylaxis was reported at base line by 60 percent of the patients with CD4 cell counts below 200 per cubic millimeter and during follow-up by 83 percent of such patients (P<0.001).During the follow-up period, 427 of the 1372 patients died (31 percent). Kaplan–Meier survival estimates stratified according to the CD4 cell count at enrollment and demographic variables are shown in Figure 1AFigure 1
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Survival According to the CD4 Cell Count and Sex (Panel A), Injection-Drug Use (Panel B), Race (Panel C), and Annual Income (Panel D)., Figure 1B, Figure 1C, and Figure 1D. After stratification for the CD4 cell count at base line, there were no significant differences in survival between men and women (Figure 1A), injection-drug users and those who did not use injection drugs (Figure 1B), whites and nonwhites (Figure 1C), or patients with median annual incomes of $5,000 or less and those with incomes of more than $5,000 (Figure 1D). There were also no significant differences in survival according to the type of health insurance carried by patients at enrollment, the active use of injection drugs, housing status (homeless or not homeless), or level of education (<12 years or ≥12 years) (data not shown).The mortality rate was significantly higher among patients who had received antiretroviral therapy before enrollment in the clinic than among patients who had not received such therapy (Figure 2Figure 2
Kaplan–Meier Estimates of Survival According to the Use of Antiretroviral Therapy (Primarily Zidovudine) before En-rollment and the CD4 Cell Count.). Patients with initial CD4 cell counts of ≤200 per cubic millimeter who had a history of treatment with zidovudine or other antiretroviral drugs had a median survival of 600 days, as compared with 820 days for patients with CD4 cell counts of ≤200 per cubic millimeter who had not been treated previously with antiretroviral agents (P<0.001). The results were similar for patients with CD4 cell counts of 201 to 500 per cubic millimeter at enrollment.The results of a Cox proportional-hazards analysis of factors associated with mortality among all 1372 patients are shown in Table 3Table 3
Results of a Cox Proportional-Hazards Analysis of Factors Associated with Death among the 1372 Patients in the Johns Hopkins HIV Clinic Cohort.. A CD4 cell count of ≤200 per cubic millimeter at enrollment was associated with an increased risk of death (relative risk, 7.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 4.9 to 12.5; P<0.001), as was a CD4 cell count of 201 to 350 per cubic millimeter (relative risk, 2.6; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.5 to 4.4; P = 0.006). A diagnosis of AIDS at enrollment was associated with a risk of death of 2.9 (95 percent confidence interval, 2.1 to 3.9; P<0.001). Older age was associated linearly with a greater risk of death (relative risk per year of age, 1.02; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.01 to 1.03; P = 0.01). Having a job at enrollment was associated with a decreased risk of death (relative risk, 0.77; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.67 to 0.89; P<0.001). Sex, race, income level, and a history of injection-drug use were not significantly associated with mortality. Patients who had received antiretroviral therapy before enrollment had a significantly increased risk of death (relative risk, 1.4; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.2 to 1.8; P<0.001), whereas treatment with antiretroviral therapy after entry was associated with a lower risk of death (relative risk, 0.65; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.52 to 0.83; P = 0.004). Use of pneumocystis prophylaxis during follow-up was also associated with a significantly decreased risk of death (relative risk, 0.71; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.56 to 0.91; P = 0.006).Among the 740 patients with CD4 cell counts above 200 per cubic millimeter and without AIDS at enrollment, AIDS subsequently developed in 134 (18 percent). In addition, AIDS subsequently developed or death occurred in 171 of the 740 (23 percent). After stratification according to the initial CD4 cell count, there were no significant differences in disease progression between men and women, blacks and whites, and injection-drug users and those who did not use injection drugs. A Cox proportional-hazards analysis with disease progression as the dependent variable showed an increased risk of progression associated with a CD4 cell count of 201 to 350 per cubic millimeter, prior antiretroviral therapy, older age, and symptomatic disease at base line (Table 4Table 4
Results of a Cox Proportional-Hazards Analysis of Disease Progression or Death among the 740 Patients with HIV Infection but without AIDS at Enrollment.). Race, sex, previous use of injection drugs, current use of injection drugs, income level, type of insurance at enrollment, and housing status (homeless or not homeless) were not associated with disease progression or death in these patients (P>0.10 for all comparisons).Discussion
We have shown that in patients with HIV infection who receive consistent medical care, disease progression and survival are not related to race, sex, drug use, or income. When the data were stratified according to the CD4 cell count, no significant demographic differences in mortality were observed in our patient population. In addition to the CD4 cell count, an increased risk of death was associated with older age and use of antiretroviral therapy before enrollment in the clinic, whereas improved survival was associated with the initiation of antiretroviral therapy after enrollment, the use of prophylaxis against pneumocystis, and being employed at enrollment.
Previous studies have found that survival among patients with advanced HIV disease may vary according to demographic characteristics. Rothenberg and coworkers examined survival among patients with AIDS in New York City between 1981 and 1985 and found that homosexual men and whites survived significantly longer than women, blacks, and injection-drug users.6 In a study of patients with AIDS who received Medicaid in Maryland, we found that survival was significantly shorter among women, blacks, and injection-drug users than among homosexual men and whites.10 The most important predictor of survival in our earlier study was the use of zidovudine, indicating that women, blacks, and injection-drug users had poorer access to medical care for HIV disease. Friedland and coworkers reported several demographic differences in survival among patients at a hospital-based clinic in the Bronx, New York,21 and suggested that differences in treatment may have contributed to these findings. Some recent studies have reported the absence of demographic differences in survival among patients with HIV disease in Europe and in the United States, after adjustment for treatment or degree of immunosuppression.12,22 However, a recent multicenter study found that women had higher mortality rates, but not more rapid disease progression, than men.4 Our study involved a heterogeneous population of patients receiving clinical care for HIV disease and had a large number of clinical end points. Our results provide strong evidence that earlier reports of differences in survival were a result of inadequate medical care rather than biologic differences in the natural history of HIV infection.
Hogg and coworkers recently reported significantly shorter survival among low-income Canadian patients infected with HIV than among those with higher incomes.15 Because Canada has universal health care, they concluded that access to medical care was probably not a factor in this difference. We found no significant differences in survival according to income or the type of health insurance at enrollment in our study. Our patients were impoverished, however, with few having incomes near the median in the Canadian study. Nonetheless, our data suggest that the use of HIV-related health care services may be independent of health insurance in influencing survival. Indeed, as noted above, we previously found marked demographic differences in the use of zidovudine among patients with AIDS whose care was covered by Medicaid, which provides prescription-drug coverage.10
Although having a job at base line was not associated with disease progression in patients without AIDS initially, it was associated with a lower risk of death. We have previously reported that impaired functional status is independently associated with an increased risk of death.23 Because functional status affects the ability to work, it is likely that the survival advantage associated with employment is a result of better overall health.
In this study, the CD4 cell count was the most important predictor of survival, which is consistent with numerous previous reports. Yarchoan and associates reported that median survival in a small cohort of patients enrolled in trials of antiretroviral therapy was 12.1 months after the CD4 cell count dropped below 50 per cubic millimeter and that virtually all deaths occurred in patients with low counts.24 Ehmann and coworkers recently reported that survival among patients with hemophilia and low CD4 cell counts was age-related but similar to that found in this study.25 Our data support the findings of a low mortality rate among patients with high CD4 cell counts and shorter survival in very advanced HIV disease.
Our finding that the use of antiretroviral therapy (principally zidovudine) before enrollment in the clinic was associated with poorer survival is consistent with the observation that the survival advantage conferred by zidovudine is constrained by time. Although zidovudine clearly prolongs survival in advanced HIV disease,7 recent studies have indicated that survival is prolonged only for one to two years.26-29 Our previous study of access to therapy for HIV disease indicated that after adjustment for the CD4 cell count, whites were more likely than nonwhites to receive antiretroviral therapy and pneumocystis prophylaxis before their initial visit to the Johns Hopkins HIV Clinic.14 This subsequent analysis has shown no difference in survival between whites and nonwhites, yet has shown a significantly increased risk of death for persons receiving antiretroviral therapy before enrollment. We believe that this finding reflects the limited duration of the efficacy of antiretroviral therapy. Patients in our cohort who began receiving zidovudine before enrollment had already obtained a partial survival benefit from the drug, whereas those who started treatment after enrollment obtained all the benefit during the follow-up period of the study. A recent analysis from our clinic indicates that the duration of the survival advantage conferred by zidovudine in this population is approximately 18 months.30
In our proportional-hazards analysis prophylaxis against pneumocystis was also associated with improved survival, with a 29 percent reduction in the risk of death after adjustment for other variables. We have previously reported a significantly reduced risk of death with the use of pneumocystis prophylaxis in a different patient population, as have others.8,9,31 In this analysis, pneumocystis prophylaxis was correlated with the use of antiretroviral therapy and the CD4 cell count, and the magnitude of the benefit may be somewhat muted by adjustment for these factors.
In our study, age was associated with a higher rate of death from HIV, with an increased risk of death of 2 percentage points per year of age. Bacchetti and colleagues32 first reported age-related differences in survival among patients with AIDS in San Francisco, and these findings have been confirmed in studies of other populations.25,33 The reason for this difference in survival is not known, although increased susceptibility to immunosuppression from HIV infection has been suggested. These data underscore the importance of adjustment for age in the comparison of survival in different populations of people with HIV infection.
Our data demonstrate that the outcome of treated HIV disease is not influenced by important demographic variables. Nonetheless, analyses of large populations of people with AIDS or advanced HIV disease show sometimes striking differences in survival.34 Although it may be speculated that biologic differences between the sexes, racial or ethnic groups, or other groups (e.g., users and nonusers of injection drugs) may underlie these disparities, our findings suggest that access to medical care is a more important predictor of survival. Improved access to adequate medical care for HIV infection is essential to achieve better clinical outcomes.
Supported by a grant from the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (R01-HS0780902).
We are indebted to Darrell Forney, Joel Gibson, Lisa-Marie Castro, Cathy Riggin, and Linda Locklear for their contributions to this study and to Colleen Winston and Carol Lent for assistance in the preparation of the manuscript.
Source Information
From the Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore.
Address reprint requests to Dr. Chaisson at Johns Hopkins Hospital, 600 N. Wolfe St., Carnegie 292, Baltimore, MD 21287-6220.
- References
References
1
Selik RM ,Chu SY ,Buehler JW . HIV infection as leading cause of death among young adults in US cities and states. JAMA 1993;269:2991-2994[Erratum, JAMA 1993;270:710.]
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline2
AIDS among racial/ethnic minorities -- United States, 1993
Medline3
Update: AIDS among women -- United States, 1994
Medline4
Melnick SL ,Sherer R ,Louis TA , et al. Survival and disease progression according to gender of patients with HIV infection: the Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. JAMA 1994;272:1915-1921
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline5
Lemp GF ,Hirozawa AM ,Cohen JB ,Derish PA ,McKinney KC ,Hernandez SR . Survival for women and men with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1992;166:74-79
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline6
Rothenberg R ,Woelfel M ,Stoneburner R ,Milberg J ,Parker R ,Truman B . Survival with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: experience with 5833 cases in New York City. N Engl J Med 1987;317:1297-1302
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline7
Fischl MA ,Richman DD ,Grieco MH , et al. The efficacy of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1987;317:185-191
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline8
Graham NM ,Zeger SL ,Park LP , et al. The effects on survival of early treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1037-1042
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline9
Chaisson RE ,Keruly J ,Richman DD ,Moore RD . Pneumocystis prophylaxis and survival in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection treated with zidovudine. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:2009-2013
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline10
Moore RD ,Hidalgo J ,Sugland BW ,Chaisson RE . Zidovudine and the natural history of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1412-1416
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline11
Chaisson RE ,Fuchs E ,Stanton D , et al. Racial heterogeneity of HIV antigenemia in people with HIV infection. AIDS 1991;5:177-180
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline12
von Overbeck J ,Egger M ,Smith GD , et al. Survival in HIV infection: do sex and category of transmission matter? AIDS 1994;8:1307-1313
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline13
Klein MR ,Keet IP ,D'Amaro J , et al. Associations between HLA frequencies and pathogenic features of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in seroconverters from the Amsterdam cohort of homosexual men. J Infect Dis 1994;169:1244-1249
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline14
Moore RD ,Stanton DL ,Gopalan R ,Chaisson RE . Racial differences in the use of drug therapy for HIV disease in an urban community. N Engl J Med 1994;330:763-768
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline15
Hogg RS ,Strathdee SA ,Craib KJP ,O'Shaughnessy MV ,Montaner JS ,Schechter MT . Lower socioeconomic status and shorter survival following HIV infection. Lancet 1994;344:1120-1124
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline16
Chaisson RE ,Stanton DL ,Gallant JE ,Rucker S ,Bartlett JG ,Moore RD . Impact of the 1993 revision of the AIDS case definition on the prevalence of AIDS in a clinical setting. AIDS 1993;7:857-862
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline17
1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adultsMMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1992;41:(RR-17):1-19
Medline18
Kaplan EL ,Meier P . Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations. J Am Stat Assoc 1958;53:457-481
CrossRef | Web of Science19
Cox DR . Regression models and life-tables. J R Stat Soc [B] 1972;34:187-22020
Lee ET. Statistical methods for survival data analysis. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley, 1992.
21
Friedland GH ,Saltzman B ,Vileno J ,Freeman K ,Schrager LK ,Klein RS . Survival differences in patients with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991;4:144-153
Web of Science | Medline22
Cozzi Lepri A, Pezzotti P, Dorrucci M, Phillips AN, Rezza G, Italian Seroconversion Study
CrossRef | Web of Science23
Stanton DL ,Wu AW ,Moore RD , et al. Functional status of persons with HIV infection in an ambulatory setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994;7:1050-1056
Web of Science | Medline24
Yarchoan R ,Venzon DJ ,Pluda JM , et al. CD4 count and the risk for death in patients infected with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:184-189
Web of Science | Medline25
Ehmann WC ,Eyster ME ,Wilson SE ,Andes WA ,Goedert JJ . Relationship of CD4 lymphocyte counts to survival in a cohort of hemophiliacs infected with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994;7:1095-1098
Web of Science | Medline26
Volberding PA ,Lagakos SW ,Grimes JM , et al. The duration of zidovudine benefit in persons with asymptomatic HIV infection: prolonged evaluation of protocol 019 of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. JAMA 1994;272:437-442
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline27
Lundgren JD ,Phillips AN ,Pedersen C , et al. Comparison of long-term prognosis of patients with AIDS treated and not treated with zidovudine. JAMA 1994;271:1088-1092
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline28
Moore RD ,Chaisson RE ,Hidalgo J . The efficacy of zidovudine is time limited. JAMA 1994;272:1001-1001
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline29
Concorde Coordinating Committee
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline30
Moore RD, Keruly JC, Chaisson RE. Duration of the survival benefit of zidovudine in HIV infection. In: Program and abstracts of the 34th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Orlando, Fla., October 4–7, 1994. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology, 1994:61. abstract.
31
Osmond D ,Charlebois E ,Lang W ,Shiboski S ,Moss A . Changes in AIDS survival time in two San Francisco cohorts of homosexual men, 1983 to 1993. JAMA 1994;271:1083-1087
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline32
Bacchetti P ,Osmond D ,Chaisson RE , et al. Survival patterns in the first 500 patients with AIDS in San Francisco. J Infect Dis 1988;157:1044-1047
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline33
Goedert JJ ,Kessler CM ,Aledort LM , et al. A prospective study of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and the development of AIDS in subjects with hemophilia. N Engl J Med 1989;321:1141-1148
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline34
Turner BJ ,Markson LE ,McKee LJ ,Houchens R ,Fanning T . Health care delivery, zidovudine use, and survival of women and men with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994;7:1250-1262
Web of Science | Medline
- Citing Articles (136)
Citing Articles
1
Amit C Achhra, Janaki Amin. (2012) Race and CD4 + T-cell count in HIV prognosis and treatment. Future Virology 7:2, 193-203
CrossRef2
Alexander Brack, Heike L. Rittner, Christoph Stein. (2011) Immunosuppressive Effects of Opioids—Clinical Relevance. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 6:4, 490-502
CrossRef3
James McMahon, Christine Wanke, Norma Terrin, Sally Skinner, Tamsin Knox. (2011) Poverty, Hunger, Education, and Residential Status Impact Survival in HIV. AIDS and Behavior 15:7, 1503-1511
CrossRef4
E. D. Riley, K. Moore, J. L. Sorensen, J. P. Tulsky, D. R. Bangsberg, T. B. Neilands. (2011) Basic Subsistence Needs and Overall Health Among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected Homeless and Unstably Housed Women. American Journal of Epidemiology 174:5, 515-522
CrossRef5
Erin E. McClelland, Jennifer M. Smith. (2011) Gender Specific Differences in the Immune Response to Infection. Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis 59:3, 203-213
CrossRef6
, Olivia Keiser, Ben Spycher, Andri Rauch, Alexandra Calmy, Matthias Cavassini, Tracy R. Glass, Dunja Nicca, Bruno Ledergerber, Matthias Egger. (2011) Outcomes of Antiretroviral Therapy in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study: Latent Class Analysis. AIDS and Behavior
CrossRef7
Agostino Riva, Elisa Vicenzi, Massimo Galli, Guido Poli. (2011) Strenuous resistance to natural HIV-1 disease progression: viral controllers and long-term nonprogressors. Future Virology 6:4, 521-533
CrossRef8
Mette Vang Larsen, Lars Haukali Omland, Jan Gerstoft, Birgit T. Røge, Carsten Schade Larsen, Gitte Pedersen, Niels Obel, Gitte Kronborg. (2010) Impact of injecting drug use on response to highly active antiretroviral treatment in HIV-1-infected patients: A nationwide population-based cohort study. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 42:11-12, 917-923
CrossRef9
Mihaela S. Stefan, J. Matthew Blackwell, Kamau M. Crawford, Johanna Martinez, Sun Wu Sung, Scott A. Holliday, Michael Landry, Nancy LaVine, Nathan Lerfald, Jason L. Morris, Sandra Greene, Samuel Cykert. (2010) Patientsʼ Attitudes Toward and Factors Predictive of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing of Academic Medical Clinics. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 340:4, 264-267
CrossRef10
Winnie K. Luseno, Wendee M. Wechsberg, Tracy L. Kline, Rachel Middlesteadt Ellerson. (2010) Health Services Utilization Among South African Women Living with HIV and Reporting Sexual and Substance-Use Risk Behaviors. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 24:4, 257-264
CrossRef11
Mette V. Larsen, Lars H. Omland, Jan Gerstoft, Carsten S. Larsen, Janne Jensen, Niels Obel, Gitte Kronborg. (2010) Impact of injecting drug use on mortality in Danish HIV-infected patients: a nation-wide population-based cohort study. Addiction 105:3, 529-535
CrossRef12
Viktor Müller, Viktor von Wyl, Sabine Yerly, Jürg Böni, Thomas Klimkait, Philippe Bürgisser, Bruno Ledergerber, Huldrych F Günthard, Sebastian Bonhoeffer. (2009) African descent is associated with slower CD4 cell count decline in treatment-naive patients of the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. AIDS 23:10, 1269-1276
CrossRef13
H.L. Rittner, A. Brack. (2009) Opioidinduzierte Immunsuppression. Der Anaesthesist 58:1, 7-15
CrossRef14
Kathleen McDavid Harrison, Qiang Ling, Ruiguang Song, H. Irene Hall. (2008) County-Level Socioeconomic Status and Survival After HIV Diagnosis, United States. Annals of Epidemiology 18:12, 919-927
CrossRef15
Fátima Brañas, Juan Berenguer, Matilde Sánchez-Conde, Juan Carlos López-Bernaldo de Quirós, Pilar Miralles, Jaime Cosín, José Antonio Serra. (2008) The Eldest of Older Adults Living with HIV: Response and Adherence to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. The American Journal of Medicine 121:9, 820-824
CrossRef16
Rebecca Clark. (2008) Considerations for the antiretroviral management of women in 2008. Women's Health 4:5, 465-477
CrossRef17
G. Woldemichael, D. Christiansen, S. Thomas, N. Benbow. (2008) Demographic Characteristics and Survival With AIDS: Health Disparities in Chicago, 1993-2001. American Journal of Public Health 99:S1, S118-S123
CrossRef18
J.J. Furin, H.L. Behforouz, S.S. Shin, J.S. Mukherjee, J. Bayona, P.E. Farmer, J.Y. Kim, S. Keshavjee. (2008) Expanding Global HIV Treatment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1136:1, 12-20
CrossRef19
Chun Chao, Lisa P. Jacobson, Donald Tashkin, Otoniel Martínez-Maza, Michael D. Roth, Joseph B. Margolick, Joan S. Chmiel, Charles Rinaldo, Zuo-Feng Zhang, Roger Detels. (2008) Recreational drug use and T lymphocyte subpopulations in HIV-uninfected and HIV-infected men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 94:1-3, 165-171
CrossRef20
D. D. Celentano, G. Lucas. (2007) Optimizing Treatment Outcomes in HIV-Infected Patients with Substance Abuse Issues. Clinical Infectious Diseases 45:Supplement 4, S318-S323
CrossRef21
Elise D. Riley, Monica Gandhi, C. Bradley Hare, Jennifer Cohen, Stephen W. Hwang. (2007) Poverty, unstable housing, and HIV infection among women living in the United States. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 4:4, 181-186
CrossRef22
Glenda Gray, Phyllis Berger. (2007) Pain in women with HIV/AIDS. PAIN 132, S13-S21
CrossRef23
Bruno Spire, Gregory M. Lucas, M. Patrizia Carrieri. (2007) Adherence to HIV treatment among IDUs and the role of opioid substitution treatment (OST). International Journal of Drug Policy 18:4, 262-270
CrossRef24
Nancy L. Sohler, Mitchell D. Wong, William E. Cunningham, Howard Cabral, Mari-Lynn Drainoni, Chinazo O. Cunningham. (2007) Type and Pattern of Illicit Drug Use and Access to Health Care Services for HIV-Infected People. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 21:s1, S-68-S-76
CrossRef25
Patricia Braga, Maria-Regina A. Cardoso, Aluisio Cotrim Segurado. (2007) Gender Differences in Survival in an HIV/AIDS Cohort from São Paulo, Brazil. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 21:5, 321-328
CrossRef26
Ming-Chang Chiang, Rebecca A. Dutton, Kiralee M. Hayashi, Oscar L. Lopez, Howard J. Aizenstein, Arthur W. Toga, James T. Becker, Paul M. Thompson. (2007) 3D pattern of brain atrophy in HIV/AIDS visualized using tensor-based morphometry. NeuroImage 34:1, 44-60
CrossRef27
C. L. Miller, P. M. Spittal, E. Wood, K. Chan, M. T. Schechter, J. S. G. Montaner, R. S. Hogg. (2006) Inadequacies in antiretroviral therapy use among Aboriginal and other Canadian populations. AIDS Care 18:8, 968-976
CrossRef28
Michael Fingerhood, Darius A. Rastegar, Donald Jasinski. (2006) Five-Year Outcomes of a Cohort of HIV-Infected Injection Drug Users in a Primary Care Practice. Journal of Addictive Diseases 25:2, 33-38
CrossRef29
Amy C. Justice, Joseph Erdos, Cynthia Brandt, Joseph Conigliaro, William Tierney, Kendall Bryant. (2006) The Veterans Affairs Healthcare System. Medical Care 44:Suppl 2, S7-S12
CrossRef30
Michael J Silverberg, Scott A Wegner, Mark J Milazzo, Rosemary G McKaig, Carolyn F Williams, Brian K Agan, Adam W Armstrong, Stephen J Gange, Clifton Hawkes, Robert J OʼConnell, Sunil K Ahuja, Matthew J Dolan. (2006) Effectiveness of highly-active antiretroviral therapy by race/ethnicity. AIDS 20:11, 1531-1538
CrossRef31
Bernadette Davantes Heckman. (2006) Psychosocial Differences Between Whites and African Americans Living With HIV/AIDS in Rural Areas of 13 US States. The Journal of Rural Health 22:2, 131-139
CrossRef32
Kelly A Gebo. (2006) HIV and Aging. Drugs & Aging 23:11, 897-913
CrossRef33
Kelly A Gebo, Richard D Moore. (2005) Managing HIV infection in middle aged and older populations. Aging Health 1:3, 395-407
CrossRef34
F. Kapadia, D. Vlahov, R. M. Donahoe, G. Friedland. (2005) The Role of Substance Abuse in HIV Disease Progression: Reconciling Differences from Laboratory and Epidemiologic Investigations. Clinical Infectious Diseases 41:7, 1027-1034
CrossRef35
Emmanuel G R??gulier, Reshma Panemangalore, Max W Richardson, Jeremy J DeFranco, Virginia Kocieda, Devon C Gordon-Lyles, Peter Silvera, Kamel Khalili, Jean-Fran??ois Zagury, Mark G Lewis, Jay Rappaport. (2005) Persistent Anti-Gag, -Nef, and -Rev IgM Levels as Markers of the Impaired Functions of CD4+ T-Helper Lymphocytes During SIVmac251 Infection of Cynomolgus Macaques. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 40:1, 1-11
CrossRef36
Farzana Kapadia, Judith A. Cook, Marge H. Cohen, Nancy Sohler, Andrea Kovacs, Ruth M. Greenblatt, Imtiaz Choudhary, David Vlahov. (2005) The relationship between non-injection drug use behaviors on progression to AIDS and death in a cohort of HIV seropositive women in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy use. Addiction 100:7, 990-1002
CrossRef37
CA Donnelly, LM Bartley, AC Ghani, AM Le Fevre, GP Kwong, BJ Cowling, AI van Sighem, F de Wolf, RA Rode, RM Anderson. (2005) Gender difference in HIV-1 RNA viral loads. HIV Medicine 6:3, 170-178
CrossRef38
Rebecca A Clark, Kathleen E Squires. (2005) Gender-specific considerations in the antiretroviral management of HIV-infected women. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 3:2, 213-227
CrossRef39
Darrell P. Wheeler. (2005) Working With Positive Men: HIV Prevention With Black Men Who Have Sex With Men. AIDS Education and Prevention 17:supplement_a, 102-115
CrossRef40
N. Voirin, C. Trepo, P. Miailhes, J. L. Touraine, C. Chidiac, D. Peyramond, J. M. Livrozet, J. Ritter, P. Chevallier, J. Fabry, R. Allard, P. Vanhems. (2004) Survival in HIV-infected patients is associated with hepatitis C virus infection and injecting drug use since the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy in the Lyon observational database. Journal of Viral Hepatitis 11:6, 559-562
CrossRef41
Kelly A Gebo, Richard D Moore. (2004) Treatment of HIV infection in the older patient. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 2:5, 733-743
CrossRef42
Fred J. Hellinger, William E. Encinosa. (2004) Antiretroviral Therapy and Health Care Utilization: A Study of Privately Insured Men and Women with HIV Disease. Health Services Research 39:4p1, 949-968
CrossRef43
Giota Touloumi, Nikos Pantazis, Abdel G Babiker, Sarah A Walker, Olga Katsarou, Anastasia Karafoulidou, Angelos Hatzakis, Kholoud Porter. (2004) Differences in HIV RNA levels before the initiation of antiretroviral therapy among 1864 individuals with known HIV-1 seroconversion dates. AIDS 18:12, 1697-1705
CrossRef44
Cristian Apetrei, Preston A. Marx, Stephen M. Smith. (2004) The evolution of HIV and its consequences. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 18:2, 369-394
CrossRef45
A. Loughlin, L. Metsch, L. Gardner, P. Anderson-mahoney, M. Barrigan, S. Strathdee. (2004) Provider barriers to prescribing HAART to medically-eligible HIV-infected drug users. AIDS Care 16:4, 485-500
CrossRef46
Ram Rangsin, Joseph Chiu, Chirasak Khamboonruang, Narongrid Sirisopana, Sakol Eiumtrakul, Arthur E. Brown, Merlin Robb, Chris Beyrer, Cholticha Ruangyuttikarn, Lauri E. Markowitz, Kenrad E. Nelson. (2004) The Natural History of HIV-1 Infection in Young Thai Men After Seroconversion. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 36:1, 622-629
CrossRef47
Richard D. Moore, Jeanne C. Keruly, Richard E. Chaisson. (2004) Differences in HIV Disease Progression by Injecting Drug Use in HIV-Infected Persons in Care. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 35:1, 46-51
CrossRef48
Roberto Manfredi. (2004) HIV infection and advanced age. Ageing Research Reviews 3:1, 31-54
CrossRef49
Evan Wood, Julio SG Montaner, David R Bangsberg, Mark W Tyndall, Steffanie A Strathdee, Michael V O'Shaughnessy, Robert S Hogg. (2003) Expanding access to HIV antiretroviral therapy among marginalized populations in the developed world. AIDS 17:17, 2419-2427
CrossRef50
Kenneth H. Mayer, Joseph W. Hogan, Dawn Smith, Robert S. Klein, Paula Schuman, Joseph B. Margolick, Christina Korkontzelou, Homayoon Farzedegan, David Vlahov, Charles C.J. Carpenter. (2003) Clinical and Immunologic Progression in HIV-Infected US Women Before and After the Introduction of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:5, 614-624
CrossRef51
Willi McFarland, Sanny Chen, Ling Hsu, Sandra Schwarcz, Mitchell Katz. (2003) Low Socioeconomic Status Is Associated With a Higher Rate of Death in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy, San Francisco. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:1, 96-103
CrossRef52
Roberto Manfredi, Leonardo Calza, Davide Cocchi, Francesco Chiodo. (2003) Antiretroviral Treatment and Advanced Age: Epidemiologic, Laboratory, and Clinical Features in the Elderly. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:1, 112-114
CrossRef53
Antonia L. Moore, Ole Kirk, Anne M. Johnson, Christine Katlama, Anders Blaxhult, Manfred Dietrich, Robert Colebunders, Antonio Chiesi, Jens D. Lungren, Andrew N. Phillips. (2003) Virologic, Immunologic, and Clinical Response to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy: the Gender Issue Revisited. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:4, 452-461
CrossRef54
Sonia Napravnik, Charles Poole, James C. Thomas, Joseph J. Eron. (2002) Gender Difference in HIV RNA Levels: A Meta-Analysis of Published Studies. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 31:1, 11-19
CrossRef55
Monica Gandhi, Peter Bacchetti, Paolo Miotti, Thomas C. Quinn, Fulvia Veronese, Ruth M. Greenblatt. (2002) Does Patient Sex Affect Human Immunodeficiency Virus Levels?. Clinical Infectious Diseases 35:3, 313-322
CrossRef56
Antonia L. Moore, Caroline A. Sabin, Margaret A. Johnson, Andrew N. Phillips. (2002) Gender and Clinical Outcomes After Starting Highly Active Antiretroviral Treatment: A Cohort Study. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 29:2, 197-202
CrossRef57
Roberto Manfredi. (2002) HIV Disease and Advanced Age. Drugs & Aging 19:9, 647-669
CrossRef58
Ling C. Hsu, Eric Vittinghoff, Mitch H. Katz, Sandra K. Schwarcz. (2001) Predictors of Use of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) Among Persons With AIDS in San Francisco, 1996–1999. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:4, 345-350
CrossRef59
Mark W. Tyndall, Kevin J. P. Craib, Sue Currie, Kathy Li, Michael V. O'Shaughnessy, Martin T. Schechter. (2001) Impact of HIV Infection on Mortality in a Cohort of Injection Drug Users. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:4, 351-357
CrossRef60
Timothy R. Sterling, Richard E. Chaisson, Richard D. Moore. (2001) HIV-1 RNA, CD4 T-lymphocytes, and clinical response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 15:17, 2251-2257
CrossRef61
B. R. Schackman, S. J. Goldie, M. C. Weinstein, E. Losina, H. Zhang, K. A. Freedberg. (2001) Cost-Effectiveness of Earlier Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy for Uninsured HIV-Infected Adults. American Journal of Public Health 91:9, 1456-1463
CrossRef62
Carla Gianna Luppi, José Eluf-Neto, Ester Sabino, Valeria Buccheri, Claudia Barreto, Ana Beatriz S. Ungaro. (2001) Late Diagnosis of HIV Infection in Women Seeking Counseling and Testing Services in São Paulo, Brazil. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 15:7, 391-397
CrossRef63
D. S. Zingmond, N. S. Wenger, S. Crystal, G. F. Joyce, H. Liu, U. Sambamoorthi, L. A. Lillard, A. A. Leibowitz, M. F. Shapiro, S. A. Bozzette. (2001) Circumstances at HIV diagnosis and progression of disease in older HIV-infected Americans. American Journal of Public Health 91:7, 1117-1120
CrossRef64
MARY A. YOUNG, REBECCA A. CLARK. (2001) Selected Issues in the Treatment of Women Infected With HIV. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 44:2, 167-181
CrossRef65
Katharine E. Poundstone, Richard E. Chaisson, Richard D. Moore. (2001) Differences in HIV disease progression by injection drug use and by sex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 15:9, 1115-1123
CrossRef66
Ana Moreno, María J. Perez-Elías, Jose L. Casado, Vicente Muñoz, Antonio Antela, Fernando Dronda, Enrique Navas, Santiago Moreno. (2001) Long-term outcomes of protease inhibitor-based therapy in antiretroviral treatment-naive HIV-infected injection drug users on methadone maintenance programmes. AIDS 15:8, 1068-1070
CrossRef67
Sterling, Timothy R., Vlahov, David, Astemborski, Jacquie, Hoover, Donald R., Margolick, Joseph B., Quinn, Thomas C., . (2001) Initial Plasma HIV-1 RNA Levels and Progression to AIDS in Women and Men. New England Journal of Medicine 344:10, 720-725
Full Text68
Maureen Miller, Alan Neaigus. (2001) Networks, resources and risk among women who use drugs. Social Science & Medicine 52:6, 967-978
CrossRef69
Michael G. Sension, Charles Farthing, Alan G. Shaffer, Edwin Graham, Peggy Siemon-Hryczyk, Robert S. Pilson. (2001) Challenges of Antiretroviral Treatment in Transient and Drug-Using Populations: The SUN Study. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 15:3, 129-136
CrossRef70
Antonia L. Moore, Amanda Mocroft, Sara Madge, Helen Devereux, Debbie Wilson, Andrew N. Phillips, Margaret Johnson. (2001) Gender Differences in Virologic Response to Treatment in an HIV-Positive Population: A Cohort Study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes159-163
CrossRef71
Antonia L. Moore, Amanda Mocroft, Sara Madge, Helen Devereux, Debbie Wilson, Andrew N. Phillips, Margaret Johnson. (2001) Gender Differences in Virologic Response to Treatment in an HIV-Positive Population: A Cohort Study. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 26:2, 159-163
CrossRef72
Iain D. Tatt, Katrina L. Barlow, Angus Nicoll, Jonathan P. Clewley. (2001) The public health significance of HIV-1 subtypes. AIDS 15, S59-S71
CrossRef73
Amanda Mocroft, Michael Youle, Antonia Moore, Caroline A. Sabin, Sara Madge, Alessandro Cozzi Lepri, Mervyn Tyrer, Clinton Chaloner, Debbie Wilson, Clive Loveday, Margaret A. Johnson, Andrew N. Phillips. (2001) Reasons for modification and discontinuation of antiretrovirals: results from a single treatment centre. AIDS 15:2, 185-194
CrossRef74
Richard Marlink, Helen Kao, Evelyn Hsieh. (2001) Clinical Care Issues for Women Living with HIV and AIDS in the United States. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 17:1, 1-33
CrossRef75
Elisabetta Rapiti, Daniela Porta, Francesco Forastiere, Danilo Fusco, Carlo A. Perucci. (2000) Socioeconomic Status and Survival of Persons with AIDS before and after the Introduction of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. Epidemiology 11:5, 496-501
CrossRef76
A. Mocroft, M. J. Gill, W. Davidson, A. N. Phillips. (2000) Are There Gender Differences in Starting Protease Inhibitors, HAART, and Disease Progression Despite Equal Access to Care?. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 24:5, 475-482
CrossRef77
A. Mocroft, M. J. Gill, W. Davidson, A. N. Phillips. (2000) Are There Gender Differences in Starting Protease Inhibitors, HAART, and Disease Progression Despite Equal Access to Care?. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 24:5, 475-482
CrossRef78
Roberto Manfredi, Francesco Chiodo. (2000) A case???control study of virological and immunological effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients with advanced age. AIDS 14:10, 1475-1477
CrossRef79
Kathryn Anastos, Stephen J. Gange, Bryan Lau, Barbara Weiser, Roger Detels, Janis V. Giorgi, Joseph B. Margolick, Mardge Cohen, John Phair, Sandra Melnick, Charles R. Rinaldo, Andrea Kovacs, Alexandra Levine, Sheldon Landesman, Mary Young, Alvaro Muñoz, Ruth M. Greenblatt. (2000) Association of Race and Gender With HIV-1 RNA Levels and Immunologic Progression. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 24:3, 218-226
CrossRef80
Kathryn Anastos, Stephen J. Gange, Bryan Lau, Barbara Weiser, Roger Detels, Janis V. Giorgi, Joseph B. Margolick, Mardge Cohen, John Phair, Sandra Melnick, Charles R. Rinaldo, Andrea Kovacs, Alexandra Levine, Sheldon Landesman, Mary Young, Alvaro Muñoz, Ruth M. Greenblatt. (2000) Association of Race and Gender With HIV-1 RNA Levels and Immunologic Progression. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 24:3, 218-226
CrossRef81
Samuel A. Bozzette, Barbara Phillips, Steven Asch, Allen L. Gifford, Leslie Lenert, Terri Menke, Eduardo Ortiz, Douglas Owens, Lawrence Deyton. (2000) Quality Enhancement Research Initiative for Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Medical Care 38, I-60-I-69
CrossRef82
Andrew F Geczy, Harmjan Kuipers, Marcel Coolen, Lesley J Ashton, Craig Kennedy, Gwen Ng, Rebecca Dodd, Rhonda Wallace, Trang Le, Camille H Raynes-Greenow, Wayne B Dyer, Jennifer C Learmont, John S Sullivan. (2000) HLA and other host factors in transfusion-acquired HIV-1 infection. Human Immunology 61:2, 172-176
CrossRef83
J. P. Moatti, M. P. Carrieri, B. Spire, J. A. Gastaut, J. P. Cassuto, J. Moreau. (2000) Adherence to HAART in French HIV-infected injecting drug users: the contribution of buprenorphine drug maintenance treatment. AIDS 14:2, 151-155
CrossRef84
N. French, A. Mujugira, J. Nakiyingi, D. Mulder, E. N. Janoff, C. F. Gilks. (1999) Immunologic And Clinical Stages in HIV-1–Infected Ugandan Adults Are Comparable and Provide No Evidence of Rapid Progression but Poor Survival With Advanced Disease. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22:5, 509
CrossRef85
Amanda Mocroft, Sara Madge, Anne M. Johnson, Adriano Lazzarin, Nathan Clumeck, Frank-Detlef Goebel, Jean-Paul Viard, Jose Gatell, Anders Blaxhult, Jens D. Lundgren. (1999) A Comparison of Exposure Groups in the EuroSIDA Study: Starting Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), Response to HAART, and Survival. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22:4, 369
CrossRef86
Cornelia Junghans, Nicola Low, Philip Chan, Anne Witschi, Pietro Vernazza, Matthias Egger. (1999) Uniform risk of clinical progression despite differences in utilization of highly active antiretroviral therapy: Swiss HIV Cohort Study. AIDS 13:18, 2547-2554
CrossRef87
Amanda Mocroft, Sara Madge, Anne M. Johnson, Adriano Lazzarin, Nathan Clumeck, Frank-Detlef Goebel, Jean-Paul Viard, Jose Gatell, Anders Blaxhult, Jens D. Lundgren. (1999) A Comparison of Exposure Groups in the EuroSIDA Study: Starting Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), Response to HAART, and Survival. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22:4, 369
CrossRef88
N. French, A. Mujugira, J. Nakiyingi, D. Mulder, E. N. Janoff, C. F. Gilks. (1999) Immunologic And Clinical Stages in HIV-1–Infected Ugandan Adults Are Comparable and Provide No Evidence of Rapid Progression but Poor Survival With Advanced Disease. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22:5, 509
CrossRef89
A. Blaxhult, A. Mocroft, A. Phillips, J. van Lunzen, Z. Bentwich, G. Stergiou, R. Colebunders, TL. Benfield, F. Mulcahy, JD. Lundgren, The EuroSidA. Study Group. (1999) Does European or non-European origin influence health care and prognosis for HIV patients in Europe?. HIV Medicine 1:1, 2-9
CrossRef90
Daniela Porta, Elisabetta Rapiti, Francesco Forastiere, Patrizio Pezzotti, Carlo A Perucci. (1999) Changes in survival among people with AIDS in Lazio, Italy from 1993 to 1998. AIDS 13:15, 2125-2131
CrossRef91
DAVID C. SPEER, MARGARET KENNEDY, MARY WATSON, JOAN MEAH, JANICE NICHOLS, BETTY WATSON. (1999) Ethnic, Demographic, and Social Differences among Middle and Older Adults with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 13:10, 615-624
CrossRef92
Kathryn Anastos, Leslie A. Kalish, Nancy Hessol, Barbara Weiser, Sandra Melnick, David Burns, Robert Delapenha, Jack DeHovitz, Mardge Cohen, William Meyer, James Bremer, Andrea Kovacs. (1999) The relative value of CD4 cell count and quantitative HIV-1 RNA in predicting survival in HIV-1-infected women: results of the women‚s interagency HIV study. AIDS 13:13, 1717-1726
CrossRef93
A. D. McNaghten, Debra L. Hanson, Jeffery L. Jones, Mark S. Dworkin, John W. Ward. (1999) Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after AIDS diagnosis. AIDS 13:13, 1687-1695
CrossRef94
Richard W. Grant, Edwin D. Charlebois, Robert M. Wachter. (1999) Risk Factors for Early Hospital Readmission in Patients with AIDS and Pneumonia. Journal of General Internal Medicine 14:9, 531-536
CrossRef95
Bernardino Roca, Cayetano J. Gómez, Alberto Arnedo. (1999) Stavudine, lamivudine and indinavir in drug abusing and non-drug abusing HIV-infected patients: Adherence, side effects and efficacy. Journal of Infection 39:2, 141-145
CrossRef96
C. Piketty, P. Castiel, P. Giral, J.-P. Lhomme, D. Boubilley, C. Olievenstein, F. Lert, M. D. Kazatchkine. (1999) Lack of legal income is strongly associated with an increased risk of AIDS and death in HIV-infected injecting drug users. AIDS Care 11:4, 429-436
CrossRef97
P. Morlat, G. Chêne. (1999) Apport de l'épidémiologie clinique à la prise en charge de l'infection par le VIH. La Revue de Médecine Interne 20:8, 681-692
CrossRef98
Rita Aszalos, David R McDuff, Eric Weintraub, Ivan Montoya, Robert Schwartz. (1999) Engaging Hospitalized Heroin-Dependent Patients Into Substance Abuse Treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 17:1-2, 149-158
CrossRef99
T. Prazuck, J. E. Malkin, L. Belec, S. Chamaret, C. Semaille, A. Alcais, C. Lafaix. (1999) ‘Brown sugar’ heroin intoxication and improvement of surrogate immunologic markers in HIV infection. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 5:5, 244-252
CrossRef100
Mary Ann Chiasson, Louise Berenson, Wenhui Li, Steven Schwartz, Tejinder Singh, Susan Forlenza, Benjamin A. Mojica, Margaret A. Hamburg. (1999) Declining HIV/AIDS Mortality in New York City. JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 21:1, 59-64
CrossRef101
Kris Ann K. Oursler, Richard D. Moore, Richard E. Chaisson. (1999) Risk Factors for Cryptococcal Meningitis in HIV-Infected Patients. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 15:7, 625-631
CrossRef102
Annette Alaeus, Knut Lidman, Anders Björkman, Johan Giesecke, Jan Albert. (1999) Similar rate of disease progression among individuals infected with HIV-1 genetic subtypes A-D. AIDS 13:8, 901-907
CrossRef103
Jennifer B Unger, Xinguang Chen. (1999) The role of social networks and media receptivity in predicting age of smoking initiation. Addictive Behaviors 24:3, 371-381
CrossRef104
Albert W. Wu. (1999) Insurance and Inpatient Utilization for HIV. Medical Care 37:4, 325-328
CrossRef105
Tajammal Mustafa, Francisco S. Sy, Carol A. Macera, Shirley J. Thompson, Kirby L. Jackson, Anbesaw Selassie, Laura L. Dean. (1999) Association between Exercise and HIV Disease Progression in a Cohort of Homosexual Men. Annals of Epidemiology 9:2, 127-131
CrossRef106
Mayris P. Webber, Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Marc N. Gourevitch, Donna Buono, Robert S. Klein. (1999) A prospective study of HIV disease progression in female and male drug users. AIDS 13:2, 257-262
CrossRef107
Guilherme Santoro-Lopes, Lee H. Harrison, Lawrence H. Moulton, Luis Antonio Alves Lima, Ana Maria Felix de Pinho, Cristina Hofer, Mauro Schechter. (1998) Gender and Survival After AIDS in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 19:4, 403-407
CrossRef108
Sonal S. Munsiff, Peter L. Alpert, Marc N. Gourevitch, C. J. Chang, Robert S. Klein. (1998) A Prospective Study of Tuberculosis and HIV Disease Progression. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 19:4, 361-366
CrossRef109
Farzad Mostashari, Elise Riley, Peter A. Selwyn, Frederick L. Altice. (1998) Acceptance and Adherence With Antiretroviral Therapy Among HIV-Infected Women in a Correctional Facility. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 18:4, 341-348
CrossRef110
Julia Del Amo, Ann Petruckevitch, Andrew Phillips, Anne M. Johnson, Judith Stephenson, Noreen Desmond, Thomas Hanscheid, Nichola Low, Anthony Newell, Angela Obasi, Katie Paine, Alexander Pym, Cecilia Maria Theodore, Kevin M. De Cock. (1998) Disease progression and survival in HIV-1-infected Africans in London. AIDS 12:10, 1203-1209
CrossRef111
Robert M Donahoe, David Vlahov. (1998) Opiates as potential cofactors in progression of HIV-1 infections to AIDS. Journal of Neuroimmunology 83:1-2, 77-87
CrossRef112
Dava Klirsfeld. (1998) HIV DISEASE AND WOMEN. Medical Clinics of North America 82:2, 335-357
CrossRef113
LESLEY J. ASHTON, ANDREW CARR, PHILIP H. CUNNINGHAM, MONIKA ROGGENSACK, KAREN McLEAN, MATTHEW LAW, MARK ROBERTSON, DAVID A. COOPER, JOHN M. KALDOR. (1998) Predictors of Progression in Long-Term Nonprogressors. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 14:2, 117-121
CrossRef114
Richard E. Chaisson, Joel E. Gallant, Jeanne C. Keruly, Richard D. Moore. (1998) Impact of opportunistic disease on survival in patients with HIV infection. AIDS 12:1, 29-33
CrossRef115
Howard Minkoff, Ira Ehrlich, Joseph Feldman, Susan Holman, Serena Fazili, Michael Augenbraun. (1998) Reproductive health hospitalizations among women with human immunodeficiency virus infections. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 178:1, 166-170
CrossRef116
Marianna K. Baum, Gail Shor-Posner, Guoyan Zhang, Hong Lai, Jose A. Quesada, Adriana Campa, Maria Jose-Burbano, Mary Ann Fletcher, Howerde Sauberlich, J. Bryan Page. (1997) HIV-1 Infection in Women Is Associated With Severe Nutritional Deficiencies. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 16:4, 272-278
CrossRef117
M FOWLER. (1997) WOMEN AND HIVEpidemiology and Global Overview. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America 24:4, 705-729
CrossRef118
M COHEN. (1997) NATURAL HISTORY OF HIV INFECTION IN WOMEN. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America 24:4, 743-758
CrossRef119
Barbara A. Styrt, Richard E. Chaisson, Richard D. Moore. (1997) Prior antimicrobials and staphylococcal bacteremia in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 11:10, 1243-1248
CrossRef120
Sandra K. Schwarcz, Mitchell H. Katz, Anne Hirozawa, Jan Gurley, George F. Lemp. (1997) Prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. AIDS 11:10, 1263-1268
CrossRef121
PehrOlov Pehrson, Stefan Lindbäck, Christer Lidman, Hans Gaines, Johan Giesecke. (1997) Longer survival after HIV infection for injecting drug users than for homosexual men. AIDS 11:8, 1007-1012
CrossRef122
Charles D. Kaplan, Dorette A. Courtar. (1997) Drugs and sexual health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 10:3, 199-204
CrossRef123
Angela M. Downs, Siem H. Heisterkamp, Jean-Baptiste Brunet, Françoise F. Hamers. (1997) Reconstruction and prediction of the HIV/AIDS epidemic among adults in the European Union and in the low prevalence countries of central and eastern Europe. AIDS 11:5, 649-662
CrossRef124
Stéphane Blanche, Marie-Louise Newell, Marie-Jeanne Mayaux, David T. Dunn, Jean Paul Teglas, Christine Rouzioux, Catherine S. Peckham. (1997) Morbidity and Mortality in European Children Vertically Infected by HIV-1. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:5, 442-450
CrossRef125
Sophie Pueyo, L. Rachid Salmi, Geneviève Chêne, Catherine Leport, Philippe Morlat, Laurence Dequae, Valérie Grégoire, Richard Hafner, Jean-Louis Vildé, Benjamin J. Luft, Jean Aubertin. (1997) Survival After AIDS-Defining Events in Patients With<200 Lymphocytes CD4+ × 106/L Who Are Toxoplasmosis Antibody Positive. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:5, 459-464
CrossRef126
Kathryn Anastos, Risa Denenberg, Laurie Solomon. (1997) HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION IN WOMEN. Medical Clinics of North America 81:2, 533-553
CrossRef127
Richard D. Moore, Richard E. Chaisson. (1997) Costs to Medicaid of Advancing Immunosuppression in an Urban HIV-Infected Patient Population in Maryland. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:3, 223-231
CrossRef128
U. M. Cowgill. (1997) The distribution of selenium and mortality owing to acquired immune deficiency syndrome in the continental United States. Biological Trace Element Research 56:1, 43-61
CrossRef129
Mark J. Rosen. (1996) OVERVIEW OF PULMONARY COMPLICATIONS. Clinics in Chest Medicine 17:4, 621-631
CrossRef130
Benjamin B Gelman, Dwayne A Wolf, Juan Pablo Olano, Lannette C Linthicum. (1996) Incarceration and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Autopsy results in Texas prison inmates. Human Pathology 27:12, 1282-1287
CrossRef131
William Gardner, Karleen Preator. (1996) Children of Seropositive Mothers in the U.S. AIDS Epidemic. Journal of Social Issues 52:3, 177-195
CrossRef132
Pierre Chauvin, Emmanuel Mortier, Alain-Jacques Valleron, Jacques Lebas. (1996) Outpatients care of HIV-1-infected destitute people: a study in Paris, France. The Lancet 348:9025, 480
CrossRef133
Gail Shor-Posner, Marianna K. Baum. (1996) Nutritional alterations in HIV-1 seropositive and seronegative drug users. Nutrition 12:7-8, 555-556
CrossRef134
Richard E. Chaisson, Jeanne C. Keruly, Sharon McAvinue, Joel E. Gallant, Richard D. Moore. (1996) Effects of an Incentive and Education Program on Return Rates for PPD Test Reading in Patients with HIV Infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 11:5, 455-459
CrossRef135
(1996) Race, Sex, Drug Use, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Disease. New England Journal of Medicine 334:2, 123-124
Full Text136
Steven L. Batki, Stephen J. Ferrando. (1996) Diagnosis and treatment of substance use disorders in patients with HIV infection. International Review of Psychiatry 8:2-3, 245-252
CrossRef
- Letters
