Special Article
Racial Differences in the Use of Drug Therapy for HIV Disease in an Urban Community
N Engl J Med 1994; 330:763-768March 17, 1994
- Abstract
Background
Guidelines for drug therapy in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease are based primarily on the stage of the disease. To determine whether sociodemographic characteristics of patients influence drug therapy in practice, we analyzed the use of antiretroviral therapy and prophylactic therapy for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) in an urban population infected with HIV.
Methods
All patients presenting for the first time to our HIV clinic from March 1990 through December 1992 were enrolled. Data on sociodemographic and clinical variables and on drug use were collected at the time of presentation and after six months. We asked whether patients with CD4+ cell counts of 500 or less per cubic millimeter were receiving antiretroviral therapy at the time of presentation, and whether patients with CD4+ cell counts of 200 or less per cubic millimeter were receiving PCP prophylaxis.
Results
Among the 838 patients enrolled, 656 (79 percent) were blacks, 167 (20 percent) were non-Hispanic whites, and 15 (2 percent) were Asian or Hispanic or were not racially classified. There were no racial differences in the stage of HIV disease at the time of presentation. However, there were racial disparities in the receipt of antiretroviral therapy: 63 percent of eligible whites but only 48 percent of eligible blacks received such therapy (P = 0.003). PCP prophylaxis was received by 82 percent of eligible whites but only 58 percent of eligible blacks (P<0.001). There were no significant differences in the receipt of drug therapy with respect to age, sex, mode of HIV transmission, type of insurance, income, education, or place of residence. In a logistic-regression analysis, race was the feature most strongly associated with the receipt of drug therapy. When blacks were compared with whites, the adjusted relative odds were 0.59 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.38 to 0.93) for the receipt of an antiretroviral agent and 0.27 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.13 to 0.56) for the receipt of PCP prophylaxis.
Conclusions
Among patients infected with HIV, blacks were significantly less likely than whites to have received antiretroviral therapy or PCP prophylaxis when they were first referred to an HIV clinic. This disparity suggests a need for culturally specific interventions to ensure uniform access to care, including drug therapy, and uniform standards of care.
Media in This Article
Table 1
Base-Line Characteristics of the 838 HIV-Infected Patients in the Study Cohort.Table 2
Use of Antiretroviral Agents at Presentation in Patients with CD4+ Lymphocyte Counts of 500 Cells per Cubic Millimeter or Less.Article Activity
- Article
Since the approval in 1987 of zidovudine, the first clinically effective form of antiretroviral therapy,1 a number of prophylactic and therapeutic drugs have been introduced for the treatment of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease2-12. In addition, over the past few years the most effective drug regimens and dosing schedules have been defined, as well as the stages of disease at which several of these drugs are most effectively used. The guidelines of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases for the treatment of HIV-infected persons specify that antiretroviral therapy with zidovudine should begin when the CD4+ lymphocyte count falls to 500 cells per cubic millimeter or less13. This recommendation is based on the results of two clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy of zidovudine therapy for early treatment14,15. One of the most common opportunistic infections associated with advanced HIV infection is Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP)16. The guidelines of the Public Health Service specify that prophylactic treatment for PCP should begin when the CD4+ lymphocyte count reaches 200 cells per cubic millimeter or less17.
HIV infection has disproportionately affected racial and ethnic minorities in the United States18. Despite clinical recommendations that uniform standards of prescription-drug therapy be followed regardless of sociodemographic factors (such as sex, race, and age) or behavioral factors, such as the mode of HIV transmission (e.g., injection-drug use or homosexual contact), there is evidence to suggest dissimilar demographic patterns of prescription-drug use19-21. The reasons for the differences in the use of drug therapy are unknown. Physicians' prescribing practices may vary inappropriately according to the patient's sociodemographic characteristics. The patient's ability to pay, the presence of certain types of behavior, such as injection-drug use, and other social barriers may also affect access to, and receipt of, appropriate therapy.
To quantify sociodemographic differences in prescription-drug use in patients with HIV infection and to delineate the associated factors, we analyzed drug use in a heterogeneous urban cohort of HIV-infected patients presenting for comprehensive HIV care.
Methods
The Johns Hopkins Hospital AIDS Service provides long-term primary and subspecialty care for the majority of HIV-infected patients in the Baltimore metropolitan area. To be registered in the clinic, patients must have had HIV infection diagnosed by a Maryland physician. In our patients, the mean interval between such a diagnosis and entry into the clinic was 19 months. Since December 1988, every new patient has undergone a comprehensive medical and psychosocial evaluation by either a physician or a physician's assistant, along with a nurse and a social worker, using standardized instruments to collect extensive data on demographic, clinical, laboratory, pharmaceutical, and psychosocial characteristics22.
In this study, we assessed data collected at enrollment and also at follow-up six months later. Data on the use of drug therapy were obtained for all three antiretroviral drugs licensed at the time of the study: zidovudine, didanosine, and zalcitabine. Data were also collected on the drugs used for PCP prophylaxis: trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, aerosolized pentamidine, and dapsone. Information about drug use was obtained from the patients' reports and from accompanying medical records when available.
To determine whether there were demographic differences in the stage of HIV disease at presentation, we divided the patients into three groups according to CD4+ lymphocyte count ( ≤ 200, 201 to 500, and >500 cells per cubic millimeter) and assessed each group with respect to age, sex, race, mode of HIV transmission, insurance coverage, place of residence, income, and level of education. These variables were categorized as follows: age, as 30 years or less, 31 to 44 years, and 45 or more years; race was defined as black, white, or other (all the patients in this category were Asian or Hispanic or could not be classified). The mode of HIV transmission was defined as homosexual contact, injection-drug use, homosexual contact combined with injection-drug use, heterosexual contact, or other. Insurance coverage was defined as Medicaid coverage, commercial insurance (including Blue Cross-Blue Shield and private insurance), no insurance, or other (including Medicare and membership in a health maintenance organization [HMO]). Level of education was defined as not including a high-school degree, including a high-school degree, or including education beyond the high-school level. Place of residence was defined as East Baltimore (the clinic catchment area), all other parts of Baltimore, and areas outside Baltimore. Data on income included legal income only. Some data were missing for race, insurance coverage, education, income, and place of residence.
From interviews with each patient and the medical record, we determined whether the patient could identify and name a source from which he or she had obtained medical care before visiting our clinic for the first time. A usual source of care was defined as a personal physician, physician's assistant, or nurse practitioner or a clinic, HMO, or other practice entity known to provide comprehensive care. However, we did not have information on the extent or regularity of the care provided by these sources. Determinations of a usual source of care were made only for patients with base-line CD4+ lymphocyte counts of 500 cells per cubic millimeter or less.
Since antiretroviral therapy is indicated only for patients with CD4+ lymphocyte counts of 500 cells per cubic millimeter or less, we restricted our analysis of the use of these drugs to those patients. Since PCP prophylaxis is indicated only for patients with CD4+ lymphocyte counts of 200 cells per cubic millimeter or less, we restricted our analysis of the use of this prophylaxis to those patients. This was consistent with our subsequent findings, since only 8 percent of patients with CD4+ lymphocyte counts greater than 500 cells per cubic millimeter had received antiretroviral therapy and only 9 percent of patients with CD4+ counts greater than 200 cells per cubic millimeter had received PCP prophylaxis. In our cohort, the most commonly used antiretroviral drug was zidovudine (92 percent); only a small number of patients used didanosine (5 percent) or zalcitabine (3 percent). The drugs used for PCP prophylaxis included trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (59 percent), aerosolized pentamidine (27 percent), and dapsone (13 percent).
We attempted to determine whether the patients' use of antiretroviral therapy or PCP prophylaxis at the time of enrollment differed according to demographic characteristics. We compared drug use between demographic strata by the chi-square test23 and sought to determine whether differences in other base-line variables could explain demographic differences in use. The comparisons were performed again by the chi-square test after the demographic groups were stratified according to CD4+ lymphocyte counts at enrollment. We performed a multivariate analysis using logistic regression to assess the associations between multiple variables and drug use23. One of the laboratory values obtained was the mean corpuscular volume. This value is elevated in most patients who take zidovudine and was used as a marker of compliance with zidovudine therapy24. The t-test was used to compare the average mean corpuscular volume between groups23. Two-tailed P values are presented for all statistical analyses.
The research protocol was approved by the Johns Hopkins Joint Committee on Clinical Investigation. Informed consent was not required for this observational study.
Results
The demographic characteristics of the HIV-infected patients presenting to the clinic from March 1990 through December 1992 are shown in Table 1Table 1
Base-Line Characteristics of the 838 HIV-Infected Patients in the Study Cohort.. The cohort was predominantly male (69 percent) and black (79 percent), with injection-drug use as the primary mode of HIV transmission (47 percent). The majority of patients (56 percent) were 31 to 44 years of age. At presentation, the patients were evenly divided into three groups with regard to CD4+ lymphocyte counts: those with 200 cells per cubic millimeter or less (34 percent), those with 201 to 500 cells per cubic millimeter (36 percent), and those with more than 500 cells per cubic millimeter (30 percent). We further analyzed the demographic characteristics according to the CD4+ lymphocyte count at presentation. Men were more likely than women to present first to the clinic after the CD4+ lymphocyte count had declined to 500 cells per cubic millimeter or less; similarly, persons 31 years old or older were more likely than younger persons to present after such a decline in the CD4+ count. There were no differences among patients according to CD4+ lymphocyte count at presentation with respect to race or other characteristics, including insurance coverage, place of residence, annual income, and level of education.We examined the frequency of prescription-drug use at presentation according to these demographic categories (Table 2Table 2
Use of Antiretroviral Agents at Presentation in Patients with CD4+ Lymphocyte Counts of 500 Cells per Cubic Millimeter or Less.). Blacks were less likely than whites (48 vs. 63 percent) to have received any of the antiretroviral drugs (P = 0.003). Patients less than 30 years old, those without insurance, and those from East Baltimore were less likely than the other patients to be receiving antiretroviral drugs at entry, although these differences were not statistically significant. Similarly, blacks were significantly less likely than whites (58 vs. 82 percent) to have received prophylaxis for PCP at presentation (P<0.001) (Table 3Table 3
PCP Prophylaxis at Presentation in Patients with CD4+ Lymphocyte Counts of 200 Cells per Cubic Millimeter or Less.). No other significant differences were found.To determine whether the differences between racial groups in the use of antiretroviral drugs and PCP prophylaxis were associated with other cofactors, we analyzed the use of these therapies according to race and other demographic characteristics. Table 4Table 4
Percentages of Blacks and Whites Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy or PCP Prophylaxis at Presentation. shows that there was less frequent use of antiretroviral therapy and PCP prophylaxis at the time of first presentation by blacks than by whites according to most other demographic variables. This suggests that racial differences in drug therapy occur regardless of the patient's other characteristics, including income, insurance status, mode of HIV transmission, and place of residence. We also examined the time from the diagnosis of HIV infection to entry into the clinic for patients with CD4+ lymphocyte counts of 500 cells per cubic millimeter or less and found that this interval was somewhat shorter for blacks (mean, 20 months; 95 percent confidence interval, 18 to 22) than for whites (mean, 25 months; 95 percent confidence interval, 20 to 30).In a logistic-regression analysis, we examined whether racial differences in drug use could be explained by differences in other demographic factors at presentation (Table 5Table 5
Multivariate Logistic-Regression Analysis of Demographic Characteristics Associated with Drug Use.). Racial differences continued to be present after adjustment for all the other factors. The relative odds for the receipt of antiretroviral therapy by blacks was 0.59 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.38 to 0.93), and the relative odds for the receipt of PCP prophylaxis was 0.27 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.13 to 0.56) (P = 0.02 and P<0.001, respectively). Significant differences were also found for age less than 31 years (relative odds, 0.63; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.43 to 0.94) and lack of insurance (relative odds, 0.60; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.39 to 0.93) for the receipt of antiretroviral therapy, and residence in East Baltimore (relative odds, 0.55; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.32 to 0.94) for PCP prophylaxis.To assess whether patients for whom zidovudine had been prescribed were taking the drug at entry, we compared the mean corpuscular volume in patients who reported zidovudine use with that in patients not reporting such use and found means of 95 fl (95 percent confidence interval, 94 to 96) and 88 fl (95 percent confidence interval, 87 to 89), respectively (P<0.001). Notably, among blacks the average mean corpuscular volume in patients receiving zidovudine was 93 fl (95 percent confidence interval, 91 to 95), as compared with 88 fl (95 percent confidence interval, 87 to 89) in patients not receiving zidovudine. Among whites, the average mean corpuscular volume in patients receiving zidovudine was 101 (95 percent confidence interval, 98 to 104), as compared with 89 (95 percent confidence interval, 87 to 91) in patients not receiving the drug. The mean difference of 8 fl between blacks and whites was significant (P<0.001).
A usual source of care was identified by 67 of 113 whites (59 percent) and 150 of 437 blacks (34 percent) (P<0.001). Forty-nine of 67 whites (73 percent) and 92 of 150 blacks (61 percent) who identified a usual source of care had received an antiretroviral drug (P = 0.092). In the subgroup of patients with CD4+ lymphocyte counts of 200 cells per cubic millimeter or less, 32 of 39 whites (82 percent) and 46 of 78 blacks (59 percent) who identified a usual source of care had received PCP prophylaxis (P = 0.013).
Finally, the results of the six-month interim follow-up were similar among blacks and whites and represented 96 percent and 94 percent, respectively, of patients eligible for follow-up. No racial differences in the use of either antiretroviral therapy or PCP prophylaxis were found after six months. Antiretroviral therapy had been received by 81 percent of the blacks and 84 percent of the whites. PCP prophylaxis had been received by 92 percent of the blacks and 98 percent of the whites.
Discussion
Our analysis of an HIV-infected urban cohort showed that blacks were less likely than whites to have had either antiretroviral therapy or PCP prophylaxis prescribed before they came to our clinic for care. Because a provider may have prescribed a treatment for which the patient could not pay, it is notable that the data on insurance coverage and income did not explain this racial disparity. Nor did behavior such as injection-drug use, demographic characteristics such as sex and age, or socioeconomic factors such as the patient's level of education and place of residence appear to explain the racial difference.
Our HIV service is the principal referral site in Maryland for patients with HIV infection diagnosed elsewhere. As our analysis of patients' demographic characteristics at presentation shows, both black and white patients are referred to the clinic more often in later than in earlier stages of the disease, as demonstrated by the fact that 70 percent of patients had CD4+ lymphocyte counts of 500 cells per cubic millimeter or less. The slightly shorter interval between the diagnosis of HIV infection and presentation among blacks than among whites did not explain the differences in treatment. We learned whether the patient could identify a physician or comprehensive health care facility as a usual source of care, but we did not have detailed information about the extent to which these patients had used such resources before their first visit to us. With this qualification, our analysis suggested that blacks were less likely than whites to have a usual source of care through which they could receive appropriate HIV prophylactic-drug therapy before their referral to our clinic. Recent data indicate that HIV infection increasingly affects lower-income residents of inner cities, who are predominantly young and black25. This appears also to describe a group of people who have historically neither sought nor had access to medical care, particularly preventive medical care26. Blacks, especially younger men, are the group least likely to have a regular primary care physician27. A recent study showed that HIV-infected non-whites are more likely than whites with comparable CD4+ counts to be admitted to a hospital and less likely to use outpatient care28.
Barriers to the spread of information may also affect blacks more than whites. Beliefs about the benefits and risks of treating hypertension relate to differences between blacks and whites in the use of medical care29. Blacks appear to have less knowledge of heart-attack symptoms30 and the detection and treatment of cancer31. Misconceptions about HIV disease and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) have been shown to be more common among blacks than whites,32 and distrust of health authorities may also be a barrier33. If we assume that the response of the mean corpuscular volume to zidovudine in blacks is similar to that in whites,24 our finding of a lower average mean corpuscular volume in blacks suggests that blacks may have lower compliance with zidovudine therapy than whites.
Still another potential barrier to care for blacks relates to the prescribing habits of care providers. There is evidence to suggest that the likelihood of a physician's recommending a therapeutic regimen may be influenced by the patient's race. Members of minority groups are less likely than non-Hispanic whites to be offered treatment (surgical or other) for coronary artery disease,34,35 analgesia for long-bone fractures,36 treatment of alcoholism,37 erythropoietin for end-stage renal disease,38 and rehabilitation after a mastectomy39. Our data indicate that among patients who identified a usual source of care, fewer blacks than whites received therapy. This is the case despite evidence indicating that there are probably no valid reasons for racial disparities in drug prescribing for HIV disease40-42.
Such barriers to care for young blacks contrast with the care received by the predominantly white, middle-class gay community, which has organized support systems through which medical care is actively sought, particularly in the early stages of the disease. The efforts of the gay community with regard to delivery of care and research in HIV disease represent a model of involvement by patients in medical care43. Our results suggest that there may be a need for culturally appropriate efforts to promote early preventive care in urban black populations. This need was emphasized in a recent review of barriers to the treatment of AIDS in intravenous drug users belonging to ethnic minorities44. One model for such an effort is a community-based partnership between an academic medical center and a high-risk urban black population, coordinated through churches45. Our six-month follow-up data suggest that without a referral center dedicated to the comprehensive treatment of HIV disease, inequalities in care may persist.
Although our results indicate that blacks may not have the same access as whites to recommended therapeutic care, we do not know whether these differences in access result in different outcomes. Our cohort does not have sufficient follow-up to permit us to determine whether rates of survival, progression to AIDS, or the development of PCP and other opportunistic conditions differ over time between blacks and whites. Two previous studies in urban communities found no racial differences in survival after a diagnosis of AIDS, although for the most part these studies predated contemporary antiretroviral and other therapy46,47. There are nearly 60,000 excess deaths per year among blacks as compared with whites48. Stroke, diabetes, severe hypertension, and renal failure are all more common in blacks than in whites26. The increasing shift of HIV disease to poor urban communities in which the lack of preventive care has resulted in increased morbidity and mortality from other diseases underscores the need for effective intervention to improve access to care.
Supported by a grant (R01-HS07809-01) from the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research and by a contract from the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
We are indebted to Darrell Forney, Sharon McAvinue, and Linda Locklear for their contributions to the creation and analysis of these data.
Source Information
From the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument St., Rm. 8059, Baltimore, MD 21205, where reprint requests should be addressed to Dr. Moore.
- References
References
1
Fischl MA ,Richman DD ,Grieco MH , et al. The efficacy of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1987;317:185-191
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline2
Meng TC ,Fischl MA ,Boota AM , et al. Combination therapy with zidovudine and dideoxycytidine in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: a phase I/II study. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:13-20
Web of Science | Medline3
Kahn JO ,Lagakos SW ,Richman DD , et al. A controlled trial comparing continued zidovudine with didanosine in human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1992;327:581-587
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline4
Fischl MA ,Dickinson GM ,La Voie L . Safety and efficacy of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim chemoprophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS. JAMA 1988;259:1185-1189
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline5
Leoung GS ,Feigal DW Jr ,Montgomery AB , et al. Aerosolized pentamidine for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: the San Francisco Community Prophylaxis Trial. N Engl J Med 1990;323:769-775
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline6
Kemper CA ,Meng T-C ,Nussbaum J , et al. Treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia in AIDS with a four-drug oral regimen: rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine, and ciprofloxacin. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:466-472
Web of Science | Medline7
Carr A ,Tindall B ,Brew BJ , et al. Low-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:106-111
Web of Science | Medline8
Powderly WG ,Saag MS ,Cloud GA , et al. A controlled trial of fluconazole or amphotericin B to prevent relapse of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1992;326:793-798
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline9
Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group, AIDS Clinical Trials Group
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline10
Blum RN ,Miller LA ,Gaggini LC ,Cohn DL . Comparative trial of dapsone versus trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992;5:341-347
Web of Science | Medline11
Skowron G ,Bozzette SA ,Lim L , et al. Alternating and intermittent regimens of zidovudine and dideoxycytidine in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. Ann Intern Med 1993;118:321-330
Web of Science | Medline12
Mindel A ,Faherty A ,Carney O , et al. Dosage and safety of long-term suppressive acyclovir therapy for recurrent genital herpes. Lancet 1988;1:926-928
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline13
Recommendations for zidovudine: early infectionJAMA 1990;263:1606, 1609-1606, 1609
Web of Science14
Fischl MA ,Richman DD ,Hansen N , et al. The safety and efficacy of zidovudine (AZT) in the treatment of subjects with mildly symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) infection: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1990;112:727-737
Web of Science | Medline15
Volberding PA ,Lagakos SW ,Koch MA , et al. Zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection: a controlled trial in persons with fewer than 500 CD4-positive cells per cubic millimeter. N Engl J Med 1990;322:941-949
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline16
Phair J ,Munoz A ,Detels R , et al. The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med 1990;322:161-165
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline17
Recommendations for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for adults and adolescents infected with human immunodeficiency virusMMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1992;41:1-11
Medline18
Update: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome -- United States, 1981-1990
Medline19
Moore RD ,Hidalgo J ,Sugland BW ,Chaisson RE . Zidovudine and the natural history of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1412-1416
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline20
Chaisson RE ,Keruly J ,Richman DD ,Moore RD . Pneumocystis prophylaxis and survival in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection treated with zidovudine. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:2009-2013
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline21
Stein MD ,Piette J ,Mor V , et al. Differences in access to zidovudine (AZT) among symptomatic HIV-infected persons. J Gen Intern Med 1991;6:35-40
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline22
Chaisson RE ,Stanton DL ,Gallant JE ,Rucker S ,Bartlett JG ,Moore RD . Impact of the 1993 revision of the AIDS case definition on the prevalence of AIDS in a clinical setting. AIDS 1993;7:857-862
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline23
Kahn HA, Sempos CT. Statistical methods in epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
24
Richman DD ,Fischl MA ,Grieco MH , et al. The toxicity of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1987;317:192-197
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline25
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS surveillance report, February 1993. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1993:1-23.
26
Levine DM ,Becker DM ,Bone LR . Narrowing the gap in health status of minority populations: a community-academic medical center partnership. Am J Prev Med 1992;8:319-323
Web of Science | Medline27
Bone LR ,Mamon J ,Levine DM , et al. Emergency department detection and follow-up of high blood pressure: use and effectiveness of community health workers. Am J Emerg Med 1989;7:16-20
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline28
Piette JD ,Mor V ,Mayer K ,Zierler S ,Wachtel T . The effects of immune status and race on health service use among people with HIV disease. Am J Public Health 1993;83:510-514
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline29
Levine DM ,Bone L . The impact of a planned health education approach on the control of hypertension in a high risk population. J Hum Hypertens 1990;4:317-321
Web of Science | Medline30
Folsom AR ,Sprafka JM ,Luepker RV ,Jacobs DR Jr . Beliefs among black and white adults about causes and prevention of cardiovascular disease: the Minnesota Heart Survey. Am J Prev Med 1988;4:121-127
Web of Science | Medline31
Black Americans' attitudes toward cancer and cancer tests: highlights of a studyCA Cancer J Clin 1981;31:212-218
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline32
Peruga A ,Rivo M . Racial differences in AIDS knowledge among adults. AIDS Educ Prev 1992;4:52-60
Web of Science | Medline33
Guinan ME . Black communities' belief in “AIDS as genocide”: a barrier to overcome for HIV prevention. Ann Epidemiol 1993;3:193-195
CrossRef | Medline34
Johnson PA ,Lee TH ,Cook EF ,Rouan GW ,Goldman L . Effect of race on the presentation and management of patients with acute chest pain. Ann Intern Med 1993;118:593-601
Web of Science | Medline35
Maynard C ,Fisher LD ,Passamani ER ,Pullum T . Blacks in the coronary artery surgery study (CASS): race and clinical decision making. Am J Public Health 1986;76:1446-1448
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline36
Todd KH ,Samaroo N ,Hoffman JR . Ethnicity as a risk factor for inadequate emergency department analgesia. JAMA 1993;269:1537-1539
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline37
Moore RD ,Bone LR ,Geller G ,Mamon JA ,Stokes EJ ,Levine DM . Prevalence, detection, and treatment of alcoholism in hospitalized patients. JAMA 1989;261:403-407
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline38
Powe NR ,Griffiths RI ,de Lissovoy G , et al. Access to recombinant erythropoietin by Medicare-entitled dialysis patients in the first year after FDA approval. JAMA 1992;268:1434-1440
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline39
Diehr P ,Yergan J ,Chu J , et al. Treatment modality and quality differences for black and white breast-cancer patients treated in community hospitals. Med Care 1989;27:942-958
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline40
Lagakos S ,Fischl MA ,Stein DS ,Lim L ,Volberding P . Effects of zidovudine therapy in minority and other subpopulations with early HIV infection. JAMA 1991;266:2709-2712
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline41
Easterbrook PJ ,Keruly JC ,Creagh-Kirk T ,Richman DD ,Chaisson RE ,Moore RD . Racial and ethnic differences in outcome in zidovudine-treated patients with advanced HIV disease. JAMA 1991;266:2713-2718
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline42
Smith MD . Zidovudine: does it work for everyone? JAMA 1991;266:2750-2751
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline43
Volberding PA . The clinical spectrum of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: implications for comprehensive patient care. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:729-733
Web of Science | Medline44
Levine DM ,Becker DM ,Bone LR , et al. A partnership with minority populations: a community model of effectiveness research. Ethn Dis 1992;2:296-305
Medline45
Singer M . Confronting the AIDS epidemic among i.v. drug users: does ethnic culture matter? AIDS Educ Prev 1991;3:258-283
Medline46
Friedland GH ,Saltzman B ,Vileno J ,Freeman K ,Schrager LK ,Klein RS . Survival differences in patients with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991;4:144-153[Erratum, J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr 1991;4:737.]
Web of Science | Medline47
Bacchetti P ,Osmond D ,Chaisson RE , et al. Survival patterns of the first 500 patients with AIDS in San Francisco. J Infect Dis 1988;157:1044-1047
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline48
Department of Health and Human Services. Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Black and Minority Health. Vols. I-II. Washington, D.C.: Department of Health and Human Services, 1985.
- Citing Articles (183)
Citing Articles
1
Christine U. Oramasionwu, Carolyn M. Brown, Kenneth A. Lawson, Laurajo Ryan, Jeff Skinner, Christopher R. Frei. (2011) Differences in National Antiretroviral Prescribing Patterns Between Black and White Patients with HIV/AIDS, 1996–2006. Southern Medical Journal 104:12, 794-800
CrossRef2
Michael Barton Laws, Lauren Epstein, Yoojin Lee, William Rogers, Mary Catherine Beach, Ira B. Wilson. (2011) The association of visit length and measures of patient-centered communication in HIV care: A mixed methods study. Patient Education and Counseling 85:3, e183-e188
CrossRef3
Somnath Saha, David S. Sanders, Philip Todd Korthuis, Jonathan A. Cohn, Victoria L. Sharp, Paul Haidet, Richard D. Moore, Mary Catherine Beach. (2011) The role of cultural distance between patient and provider in explaining racial/ethnic disparities in HIV care. Patient Education and Counseling 85:3, e278-e284
CrossRef4
Heena P. Santry, Sherry M. Wren. (2011) The Role of Unconscious Bias in Surgical Safety and Outcomes. Surgical Clinics of North America
CrossRef5
Christa R. Nevin, Jiatao Ye, Inmaculada Aban, Michael J. Mugavero, David Jackson, Hui-Yi Lin, Jeroan Allison, James L. Raper, Michael S. Saag, James H. Willig. (2011) The Role of Toxicity-Related Regimen Changes in the Development of Antiretroviral Resistance. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 27:9, 957-963
CrossRef6
Mary Catherine Beach, Somnath Saha, P. Todd Korthuis, Victoria Sharp, Jonathon Cohn, Ira B. Wilson, Susan Eggly, Lisa A. Cooper, Debra Roter, Andrea Sankar, Richard Moore. (2011) Patient–Provider Communication Differs for Black Compared to White HIV-Infected Patients. AIDS and Behavior 15:4, 805-811
CrossRef7
N. D. Zaller, J. J. Fu, A. Nunn, C. G. Beckwith. (2011) Linkage to Care for HIV-Infected Heterosexual Men in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases 52:Supplement 2, S223-S230
CrossRef8
Somnath Saha, Elizabeth A. Jacobs, Richard D. Moore, Mary Catherine Beach. (2010) Trust in Physicians and Racial Disparities in HIV Care. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 24:7, 415-420
CrossRef9
Robert H. Keefe. (2010) Health Disparities: A Primer for Public Health Social Workers. Social Work in Public Health 25:3-4, 237-257
CrossRef10
B. Bozeman, C. Slade, P. Hirsch. (2009) Understanding Bureaucracy in Health Science Ethics: Toward a Better Institutional Review Board. American Journal of Public Health 99:9, 1549-1556
CrossRef11
Alexander C. Tsai, Mickey Chopra, Paul M. Pronyk, Neil A. Martinson. (2009) Socioeconomic disparities in access to HIV/AIDS treatment programs in resource-limited settings. AIDS Care 21:1, 59-63
CrossRef12
P. Todd Korthuis, Somnath Saha, John A. Fleishman, Moriah McSharry McGrath, Joshua S. Josephs, Richard D. Moore, Kelly A. Gebo, James Hellinger, Mary Catherine Beach, . (2008) Impact of Patient Race on Patient Experiences of Access and Communication in HIV Care. Journal of General Internal Medicine 23:12, 2046-2052
CrossRef13
Hannah L. F. Cooper, Joanne E. Brady, Samuel R. Friedman, Barbara Tempalski, Karla Gostnell, Peter L. Flom. (2008) Estimating the Prevalence of Injection Drug Use among Black and White Adults in Large U.S. Metropolitan Areas over Time (1992–2002): Estimation Methods and Prevalence Trends. Journal of Urban Health 85:6, 826-856
CrossRef14
I. U. Ogbuanu, M. E. Torres, L. Kettinger, H. Albrecht, W. A. Duffus. (2008) Epidemiological Characterization of Individuals With Newly Reported HIV Infection: South Carolina, 2004-2005. American Journal of Public Health 99:S1, S111-S117
CrossRef15
J.J. Furin, H.L. Behforouz, S.S. Shin, J.S. Mukherjee, J. Bayona, P.E. Farmer, J.Y. Kim, S. Keshavjee. (2008) Expanding Global HIV Treatment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1136:1, 12-20
CrossRef16
Hana Selinger-Leneman, Sophie Matheron, Aba Mahamat, Jacques Moreau, Dominique Costagliola, Sophie Abgrall. (2008) Dual Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Therapy in the Combination Antiretroviral Therapy Era and Predictors of Discontinuation or Switch to Combination Antiretroviral Therapy. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 47:2, 206-211
CrossRef17
Cheryl L. Robbins, Irene Padavic. (2007) Structural Influences on Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Women's Health Care. Sociology Compass 1:2, 682-700
CrossRef18
Junling Wang, Ilene H. Zuckerman, Nancy A. Miller, Fadia T. Shaya, Jason M. Noel, C. Daniel Mullins. (2007) Utilizing New Prescription Drugs: Disparities among Non-Hispanic Whites, Non-Hispanic Blacks, and Hispanic Whites. Health Services Research 42:4, 1499-1519
CrossRef19
Allan E Rodriguez, Lisa R Metsch, Gilbert Saint-Jean, Enrique G Molina, Michael A Kolber. (2007) Differences in HIV-Related Hospitalization Trends Between Haitian-Born Blacks and US-Born Blacks. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 45:5, 529-534
CrossRef20
Laurent G. Glance, Richard . Wissler, Christopher Glantz, Turner M. Osler, Dana B. Mukamel, Andrew W. Dick. (2007) Racial Differences in the Use of Epidural Analgesia for Labor. Anesthesiology 106:1, 19-25
CrossRef21
Cielito C. Reyes-Gibby, Lu Ann Aday, Knox H. Todd, Charles S. Cleeland, Karen O. Anderson. (2007) Pain in Aging Community-Dwelling Adults in the United States: Non-Hispanic Whites, Non-Hispanic Blacks, and Hispanics. The Journal of Pain 8:1, 75-84
CrossRef22
Olivia Keiser, Bego??a Martinez de Tejada, Dorothea Wunder, Caroline Chapuis-Taillard, Claudine Zellweger, Annelies S Zinkernagel, Luigia Elzi, Patrick Schmid, Enos Bernasconi, Karoline Aebi-Popp, Martin Rickenbach. (2006) Frequency of Gynecologic Follow-Up and Cervical Cancer Screening in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 43:5, 550-555
CrossRef23
B. P. Linas, H. Zheng, E. Losina, A. Rockwell, R. P. Walensky, K. Cranston, K. A. Freedberg. (2006) Optimizing Resource Allocation in United States AIDS Drug Assistance Programs. Clinical Infectious Diseases 43:10, 1357-1364
CrossRef24
Aymarah M. Robles, H. Gene Stringer. (2006) HIV-AIDS in Minorities. Clinics in Chest Medicine 27:3, 511-519
CrossRef25
Robert A. Nicholson, Megan Rooney, Kelly Vo, Erinn O'Laughlin, Melanie Gordon. (2006) Migraine Care Among Different Ethnicities: Do Disparities Exist?. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain 46:5, 754-765
CrossRef26
William N. Mkanta, Constance R. Uphold. (2006) Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Conducting Research Related to Health Care Utilization Among Individuals with HIV Infection. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 20:4, 293-303
CrossRef27
Lavera M. Crawley. (2005) Racial, Cultural, and Ethnic Factors Influencing End-of-Life Care. Journal of Palliative Medicine 8:supplement 1, s-58-s-69
CrossRef28
Valerie E. Stone. (2005) Physician contributions to disparities in HIV/AIDS care: The role of provider perceptions regarding adherence. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 2:4, 189-193
CrossRef29
Etenildo Dantas Cabral, Arnaldo de França Caldas, Hilda Azevedo Moreira Cabral. (2005) Influence of the patient's race on the dentist's decision to extract or retain a decayed tooth. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 33:6, 461-466
CrossRef30
Karen E. Lutfey, Jonathan D. Ketcham. (2005) Patient and Provider Assessments of Adherence and the Sources of Disparities: Evidence from Diabetes Care. Health Services Research 40:6p1, 1803-1817
CrossRef31
Kelly A. Gebo, John A. Fleishman, Erin D. Reilly, Richard D. Moore. (2005) High Rates of Primary Mycobacterium avium Complex and Pneumocystis jiroveci Prophylaxis in the United States. Medical Care 43:suppl, III-23-III-30
CrossRef32
Constance R. Uphold, William N. Mkanta. (2005) Review: Use of Health Care Services Among Persons Living with HIV Infection: State of the Science and Future Directions. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 19:8, 473-485
CrossRef33
Victoria A. Cargill, Valerie E. Stone. (2005) HIV/AIDS: A Minority Health Issue. Medical Clinics of North America 89:4, 895-912
CrossRef34
Fred Molitor, Christina Kuenneth, Jenny Waltermeyer, Marisol Mendoza, Arthur Aguirre, Kama Brockmann, Carol Crump. (2005) Linking HIV-Infected Persons of Color and Injection Drug Users to HIV Medical and Other Services: The California Bridge Project. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 19:6, 406-412
CrossRef35
Marvin Marcus, Carl A. Maida, James R. Freed, Fariba Younai, Ian D. Coulter, Claudia Der-Martirosian, Honghu Liu, Benjamin Freed, Norma Guzman-Becerra, Martin Shapiro. (2005) Oral white patches in a national sample of medical HIV patients in the era of HAART. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 33:2, 99-106
CrossRef36
Kevin C. Greenidge. (2005) Race, politics, ethnicity, and science. American Journal of Ophthalmology 139:4, 704-706
CrossRef37
Joshua H. Tamayo-Sarver, Neal V. Dawson, Susan W. Hinze, Rita K. Cydulka, Robert S. Wigton, David W. Baker. 2005. Rapid Clinical Decisions in Context: A Theoretical Model to Understand Physicians’ Decision-Making With an Application to Racial/Ethnic Treatment Disparities. , 183-213.
CrossRef38
Audrey Smedley, Brian D. Smedley. (2005) Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race.. American Psychologist 60:1, 16-26
CrossRef39
Kelly A. Gebo, John A. Fleishman, Richard Conviser, Erin D. Reilly, P. Todd Korthuis, Richard D. Moore, James Hellinger, Philip Keiser, Haya R. Rubin, Lawrence Crane, Fred J. Hellinger, W. Christopher Mathews. (2005) Racial and Gender Disparities in Receipt of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Persist in a Multistate Sample of HIV Patients in 2001. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 38:1, 96-103
CrossRef40
Alan R. Fleischman, Jeremiah A. Barondess. (2004) Urban Health: A Look Out Our Windows. Academic Medicine 79:12, 1130-1132
CrossRef41
Jeffrey Blustein, Alan R. Fleischman. (2004) Urban Bioethics: Adapting Bioethics to the Urban Context. Academic Medicine 79:12, 1198-1202
CrossRef42
William D. King, Mitchell D. Wong, Martin F. Shapiro, Bruce E. Landon, William E. Cunningham. (2004) Does Racial Concordance Between HIV-positive Patients and Their Physicians Affect the Time to Receipt of Protease Inhibitors?. Journal of General Internal Medicine 19:11, 1146-1153
CrossRef43
Mark S Sulkowski, Shruti H Mehta, Richard E Chaisson, David L Thomas, Richard D Moore. (2004) Hepatotoxicity associated with protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral regimens with or without concurrent ritonavir. AIDS 18:17, 2277-2284
CrossRef44
A. R. Moss, J. A. Hahn, S. Perry, E. D. Charlebois, D. Guzman, R. A. Clark, D. R. Bangsberg. (2004) Adherence to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in the Homeless Population in San Francisco: A Prospective Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases 39:8, 1190-1198
CrossRef45
William L. Turner, Beverly R. Wallace, Jared R. Anderson, Carolyn Bird. (2004) THE LAST MILE OF THE WAY: UNDERSTANDING CAREGIVING IN AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILIES AT THE END-OF-LIFE. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 30:4, 427-438
CrossRef46
Coleen K. Cunningham, Rajalakshmi Balasubramanian, Isaac Delke, Robert Maupin, Lynne Mofenson, Alex Dorenbaum, John L. Sullivan, Adolfo Gonzalez-Garcia, Edwin Thorpe, Mobeen Rathore, Richard D. Gelber. (2004) The Impact of Race/Ethnicity on Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission in the United States in Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 316. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 36:3, 800-807
CrossRef47
Heidi L. Behforouz, Audrey Kalmus, China S. Scherz, Jeffrey S. Kahn, Mitul B. Kadakia, Paul E. Farmer. (2004) Directly Observed Therapy for HIV Antiretroviral Therapy in an Urban US Setting. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 36:1, 642-645
CrossRef48
Mitchell D. Wong, William E. Cunningham, Martin F. Shapiro, Ronald M. Andersen, Paul D. Cleary, Naihua Duan, Hong Hu Liu, Ira B. Wilson, Bruce E. Landon, Neil S. Wenger, . (2004) Disparities in HIV Treatment and Physician Attitudes About Delaying Protease Inhibitors for Nonadherent Patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine 19:4, 366-374
CrossRef49
Christopher S. Hall, Edwin D. Charlebois, Judith A. Hahn, Andrew R. Moss, David R. Bangsberg. (2004) Hepatitis C Virus Infection in San Francisco's HIV-infected Urban Poor. High Prevalence but Low Treatment Rates. Journal of General Internal Medicine 19:4, 357-365
CrossRef50
Aram Dobalian, Jennie C. I. Tsao, R. Paul Duncan. (2004) Pain and the Use of Outpatient Services Among Persons With HIV. Medical Care 42:2, 129-138
CrossRef51
Valerie E. Stone. (2004) Optimizing the Care of Minority Patients with HIV/AIDS. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38:3, 400-404
CrossRef52
Rafaela R. Robles, Tomás D. Matos, Héctor M. Colón, Sherry Deren, Juan Carlos Reyes, Jonny Andía, C. Amalia Marrero, Hardeo Sahai. (2003) Determinants of Health Care Use among Puerto Rican Drug Users in Puerto Rico and New York City. Clinical Infectious Diseases 37:s5, S392-S403
CrossRef53
David R. P. Guay, Margaret B. Artz, Joseph T. Hanlon, Gerda G. Fillenbaum, Kenneth E. Schmader. (2003) Use of Antibacterial Drugs in Community-Dwelling Older Persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 51:12, 1819-1821
CrossRef54
Joshua H. Tamayo-Sarver, Neal V. Dawson, Susan W. Hinze, Rita K. Cydulka, Robert S. Wigton, Jeffrey M. Albert, Said A. Ibrahim, David W. Baker. (2003) The Effect of Race/Ethnicity and Desirable Social Characteristics on Physicians' Decisions to Prescribe Opioid Analgesics. Academic Emergency Medicine 10:11, 1239-1248
CrossRef55
Evan Wood, Julio SG Montaner, David R Bangsberg, Mark W Tyndall, Steffanie A Strathdee, Michael V O'Shaughnessy, Robert S Hogg. (2003) Expanding access to HIV antiretroviral therapy among marginalized populations in the developed world. AIDS 17:17, 2419-2427
CrossRef56
Robert S.D. Higgins. (2003) Understanding disparities in outcomes in cardiovascular medicine and thoracic oncology in African-American patients. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery 76:4, S1346-S1347
CrossRef57
Shruti H. Mehta, Richard D. Moore, David L. Thomas, Richard E. Chaisson, Mark S. Sulkowski. (2003) The Effect of HAART and HCV Infection on the Development of Hyperglycemia Among HIV-Infected Persons. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:5, 577-584
CrossRef58
Gregory M. Lucas, Richard E. Chaisson, Richard D. Moore. (2003) Survival in an Urban HIV-1 Clinic in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy: A 5-Year Cohort Study. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:3, 321-328
CrossRef59
Robert G Wallace. (2003) AIDS in the HAART era: New York's heterogeneous geography. Social Science & Medicine 56:6, 1155-1171
CrossRef60
L. Shi, C. B. Forrest, S. von Schrader, J. Ng. (2003) Vulnerability and the Patient-Practitioner Relationship: The Roles of Gatekeeping and Primary Care Performance. American Journal of Public Health 93:1, 138-144
CrossRef61
P. Todd Korthuis, Steven Asch, Martha Mancewicz, Martin F. Shapiro, W. Christopher Mathews, William E. Cunningham, J. Allen McCutchan, Allen Gifford, Martin L. Lee, Samuel A. Bozzette. (2002) Measuring Medication. Medical Care 40:12, 1270-1282
CrossRef62
Fred Molitor, Rachel M. Walsh, J. Paul Leigh. (2002) Determinants of Longer Time from HIV Result to Enrollment in Publicly Funded Care and Treatment in California by Race/Ethnicity and Behavioral Risk. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 16:11, 555-565
CrossRef63
Janet M. Blair, Patricia L. Fleming, John M. Karon. (2002) Trends in AIDS Incidence and Survival Among Racial/Ethnic Minority Men Who Have Sex with Men, United States, 1990–1999. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 31:3, 339-347
CrossRef64
Evan Wood, Julio SG Montaner, Keith Chan, Mark W Tyndall, Martin T Schechter, David Bangsberg, Michael V O'Shaughnessy, Robert S Hogg. (2002) Socioeconomic status, access to triple therapy, and survival from HIV-disease since 1996. AIDS 16:15, 2065-2072
CrossRef65
Judyann Bigby. (2002) A Call for Papers. Disparities in Health. Journal of General Internal Medicine 17:10, 814-815
CrossRef66
Benny J. Kottiri, Samuel R. Friedman, Alan Neaigus, Richard Curtis, Don C. Des Jarlais. (2002) Risk Networks and Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Prevalence of HIV Infection Among Injection Drug Users. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 30:1, 95-104
CrossRef67
J. C. Keruly, R. Conviser, R. D. Moore. (2002) Association of Medical Insurance and Other Factors With Receipt of Antiretroviral Therapy. American Journal of Public Health 92:5, 852-857
CrossRef68
Sharon Mannheimer, Gerald Friedland, John Matts, Carroll Child, Margaret Chesney, . (2002) The Consistency of Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy Predicts Biologic Outcomes for Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Infected Persons in Clinical Trials. Clinical Infectious Diseases 34:8, 1115-1121
CrossRef69
Marshall H. Chin, Catherine A. Humikowski. (2002) When Is Risk Stratification by Race or Ethnicity Justified in Medical Care?. Academic Medicine 77:3, 202-208
CrossRef70
(2002) Policy Statements Adopted by the Governing Council of the American Public Health Association, October 24, 2001. American Journal of Public Health 92:3, 451-483
CrossRef71
Robert Rosenheck, Alan Fontana. (2002) Black and Hispanic Veterans in Intensive VA Treatment Programs for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Medical Care 40:Supplement, I-52-I-61
CrossRef72
J. A. Cook, M. H. Cohen, D. Grey, L. Kirstein, J. Burke, K. Anastos, H. Palacio, J. Richardson, T. E. Wilson, M. Young. (2002) Use of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in a Cohort of HIV-Seropositive Women. American Journal of Public Health 92:1, 82-87
CrossRef73
Steven M. Asch, Allen L. Gifford, Samuel A. Bozzette, Barbara Turner, W. Chris Mathews, Kiyoshi Kuromiya, William Cunningham, Ron Andersen, Martin Shapiro, Afshin Rastegar, J. Allen McCutchan. (2001) Underuse of Primary Mycobacterium avium Complex and Pneumocystis carinii Prophylaxis in the United States. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:4, 340-344
CrossRef74
Ling C. Hsu, Eric Vittinghoff, Mitch H. Katz, Sandra K. Schwarcz. (2001) Predictors of Use of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) Among Persons With AIDS in San Francisco, 1996–1999. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:4, 345-350
CrossRef75
Michael Augenbraun, Patrick Tarwater, Ruth Greenblatt, Mardge Cohen, Audrey French, Mary Elizabeth Gore, Heather Watts, Susan Preston-Martin, Kathy Anastos. (2001) Opportunistic Infection Prophylaxis in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:2, 195-197
CrossRef76
Scott R. Smith, Duane M. Kirking. (2001) The Effect of Insurance Coverage Changes on Drug Utilization in HIV Disease. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:2, 140-149
CrossRef77
John A. Fleishman, Fred J. Hellinger. (2001) Trends in HIV-Related Inpatient Admissions From 1993 to 1997: A Seven-State Study. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:1, 73-80
CrossRef78
Jonathan E. Kaplan, Debra L. Hanson, Jeffrey L. Jones, Mark S. Dworkin. (2001) Viral load as an independent risk factor for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. AIDS 15:14, 1831-1836
CrossRef79
U. Sambamoorthi, P. J. Moynihan, E. McSpiritt, S. Crystal. (2001) Use of Protease Inhibitors and Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Among Medicaid Beneficiaries With AIDS. American Journal of Public Health 91:9, 1474-1481
CrossRef80
Katharine E. Poundstone, Richard E. Chaisson, Richard D. Moore. (2001) Differences in HIV disease progression by injection drug use and by sex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 15:9, 1115-1123
CrossRef81
Kevin C. Heslin, William E. Cunningham, Marvin Marcus, Ian Coulter, James Freed, Claudia Der-Martirosian, Samuel A. Bozzette, Martin F. Shapiro, Sally C. Morton, Ronald M. Andersen. (2001) A Comparison of Unmet Needs for Dental and Medical Care Among Persons with HIV Infection Receiving Care in the United States. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 61:1, 14-21
CrossRef82
(2001) Policy statements adopted by the Governing Council of the American Public Health Association, November 15, 2000. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 476-521
CrossRef83
(2001) Expanded family and medical leave. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 477-478
CrossRef84
(2001) Reducing the incidence of blindness, lower extremity amputation, and oral health complications in minority populations due to diabetes. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 478-479
CrossRef85
(2001) Preserving consumer choice in an era of religious/secular health industry mergers (position paper). American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 479-482
CrossRef86
(2001) Supporting access to midwifery services in the United States (position paper). American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 482-485
CrossRef87
(2001) Effective interventions for reducing racial and ethnic disparities in health. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 485-486
CrossRef88
(2001) Making medicines affordable: the price factor (position paper). American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 486-490
CrossRef89
(2001) Support for a new campaign for universal health care. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 490-491
CrossRef90
(2001) Affirming the importance of regulating pesticide exposures to protect public health. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 491-492
CrossRef91
(2001) Support for international action to eliminate persistent organic pollutants. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 492-494
CrossRef92
(2001) Creating healthier school facilities. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 494-495
CrossRef93
(2001) The precautionary principle and children's health. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 495-496
CrossRef94
(2001) Reducing the rising rates of asthma. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 496-497
CrossRef95
(2001) Maximizing public health protection with integrated vector control. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 497-498
CrossRef96
(2001) Protecting OSHA's jurisdiction over home workplaces. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 498-499
CrossRef97
(2001) Drinking water quality and public health (position paper). American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 499-500
CrossRef98
(2001) Effective public health assessment, prevention, response, and training for emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, including bioterrorism. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 500-501
CrossRef99
(2001) Confirming need for protective national health-based air quality standards. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 501-502
CrossRef100
(2001) Public health impacts of job stress. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 502-503
CrossRef101
(2001) Public health role of the National Fire Protection Association in setting codes and standards for the built environment. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 503-504
CrossRef102
(2001) Raising income to protect health. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 504-505
CrossRef103
(2001) Eliminating access barriers in public health meetings. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 507-508
CrossRef104
(2001) Ensuring optimal vision performance in visually at risk drivers. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 510-511
CrossRef105
(2001) The need for mental health and substance abuse services for the incarcerated mentally ill. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 511-512
CrossRef106
(2001) Preventing genocide. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 512-513
CrossRef107
(2001) Criteria for assessing the quality of health information on the Internet. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 513-514
CrossRef108
(2001) Discontinuation of the use of the island-municipality of Vieques, P.R., for the US Navy's training exercises. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 514-515
CrossRef109
(2001) Research and intervention on racism as a fundamental cause of ethnic disparities in health. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 515-516
CrossRef110
(2001) Opposition to the CRACK campaign. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 516-517
CrossRef111
(2001) Restoration of nutrition and health benefits eligibility to documented immigrants. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 517-518
CrossRef112
(2001) Establishment of a Medicare prescription drug benefit. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 519-519
CrossRef113
(2001) Condemnation of pharmaceutical manufacturers' retaliatory tactics. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 521-521
CrossRef114
(2001) Joint resolution in support of National Public Health Performance Standards Program. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 505a-506
CrossRef115
(2001) International trade policy and issues of improving access to drugs for HIV/AIDS and other life-threatening and disabling diseases. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 505b-505
CrossRef116
(2001) International Digest of Health Legislation. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 506a-507
CrossRef117
(2001) The need for continued and strengthened support for immunization programs. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 506b-506
CrossRef118
(2001) Encourage healthy behavior by adolescents. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 508a-510a
CrossRef119
(2001) International multilateral and bilateral debt relief. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 508b-508b
CrossRef120
(2001) Addressing the use of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in agriculture. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 518a-519a
CrossRef121
(2001) Resolution to improve the social conditions that contribute to health. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 518b-518b
CrossRef122
(2001) Participation of health professionals in capital punishment. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 520a-521a
CrossRef123
(2001) Trust fund for developing countries to meet national commitment under the WHO Framework Convention for Tabacco Control. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 520b-520b
CrossRef124
(2001) Support the framework for action on oral health in America: a report of the Surgeon General. American Journal of Public Health 91:3, 520c-520c
CrossRef125
Valerie E. Stone. (2000) PRIMARY CARE OF THE PATIENT WITH HIV/AIDS. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 14:4, 967-981
CrossRef126
William E. Cunningham, Leona E. Markson, Ronald M. Andersen, Stephen H. Crystal, John A. Fleishman, Carol Golin, Allen Gifford, Honghu H. Liu, Terry T. Nakazono, Sally Morton, Samuel A. Bozzette, Martin F. Shapiro, Neil S. Wenger. (2000) Prevalence and Predictors of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Use in Patients With HIV Infection in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes115-123
CrossRef127
William E. Cunningham, Leona E. Markson, Ronald M. Andersen, Stephen H. Crystal, John A. Fleishman, Carol Golin, Allen Gifford, Honghu H. Liu, Terry T. Nakazono, Sally Morton, Samuel A. Bozzette, Martin F. Shapiro, Neil S. Wenger. (2000) Prevalence and Predictors of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Use in Patients With HIV Infection in the United States. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 25:2, 115-123
CrossRef128
T. Wong, M. A. Chiasson, A. Reggy, R. J. Simonds, J. Heffess, V. Loo. (2000) Antiretroviral therapy and declining AIDS mortality in New York City. Journal of Urban Health 77:3, 492-500
CrossRef129
Somnath Datta, Glen A. Satten, Susmita Datta. (2000) Nonparametric Estimation for the Three-Stage Irreversible Illness-Death Model. Biometrics 56:3, 841-847
CrossRef130
Nancy A. Hessol, Kathryn Anastos, Alexandra M. Levine, Niloufar Ameli, Mardge Cohen, Mary Young, Michael Augenbraun, Paolo Miotti, Stephen J. Gange. (2000) Factors Associated with Incident Self-Reported AIDS among Women Enrolled in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 16:12, 1105-1111
CrossRef131
Peter A. Selwyn, Joseph L. Goulet, Susan Molde, Janet Constantino, Kristopher P. Fennie, Patricia Wetherill, Denise M. Gaughan, Helena Brett-Smith, Catherine Kennedy. (2000) HIV as a chronic disease: Implications for long-term care at an AIDS-dedicated skilled nursing facility. Journal of Urban Health 77:2, 187-203
CrossRef132
Allen L. Gifford, Jill E. Bormann, Martha J. Shively, Brian C. Wright, Douglas D. Richman, Samuel A. Bozzette. (2000) Predictors of Self-Reported Adherence and Plasma HIV Concentrations in Patients on Multidrug Antiretroviral Regimens. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 23:5, 386-395
CrossRef133
Allen L. Gifford, Jill E. Bormann, Martha J. Shively, Brian C. Wright, Douglas D. Richman, Samuel A. Bozzette. (2000) Predictors of Self-Reported Adherence and Plasma HIV Concentrations in Patients on Multidrug Antiretroviral Regimens. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 23:5, 386-395
CrossRef134
Jonathan E. Kaplan, Debra Hanson, Mark S. Dworkin, Toni Frederick, Jeanne Bertolli, Mary Lou Lindegren, Scott Holmberg, Jeffrey L. Jones. (2000) Epidemiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Associated Opportunistic Infections in the United States in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. Clinical Infectious Diseases 30:s1, S5-S14
CrossRef135
Michael D. Stein, Marta E. Urdaneta, Jennifer Clarke, Jinana Maksad, Mindy Sobota, Lucy Hanna, Leona E. Markson. (2000) Use of Antiretroviral Therapies by HIV-Infected Persons Receiving Methadone Maintenance. Journal of Addictive Diseases 19:1, 85-94
CrossRef136
Judith E. Sackoff, Jeffrey W. McFarland, Sanghyuk S. Shin. (2000) Trends in Prescriptions for Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in Four New York City HIV Clinics. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 23:2, 178-183
CrossRef137
Judith E. Sackoff, Jeffrey W. McFarland, Sanghyuk S. Shin. (2000) Trends in Prescriptions for Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in Four New York City HIV Clinics. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 23:2, 178-183
CrossRef138
Ronald O. Valdiserri, David R. Holtgrave, Gary R. West. (1999) Promoting early HIV diagnosis and entry into care. AIDS 13:17, 2317-2330
CrossRef139
RUTH L. FISCHBACH, MARION HUNT. (1999) Educating for Diversity: A Decade of Experience (1989-1999). Journal of Women's Health & Gender-Based Medicine 8:10, 1249-1256
CrossRef140
Cornelia Junghans, Nicola Low, Philip Chan, Anne Witschi, Pietro Vernazza, Matthias Egger. (1999) Uniform risk of clinical progression despite differences in utilization of highly active antiretroviral therapy: Swiss HIV Cohort Study. AIDS 13:18, 2547-2554
CrossRef141
Daniela Porta, Elisabetta Rapiti, Francesco Forastiere, Patrizio Pezzotti, Carlo A Perucci. (1999) Changes in survival among people with AIDS in Lazio, Italy from 1993 to 1998. AIDS 13:15, 2125-2131
CrossRef142
A. Blaxhult, A. Mocroft, A. Phillips, J. van Lunzen, Z. Bentwich, G. Stergiou, R. Colebunders, TL. Benfield, F. Mulcahy, JD. Lundgren, The EuroSidA. Study Group. (1999) Does European or non-European origin influence health care and prognosis for HIV patients in Europe?. HIV Medicine 1:1, 2-9
CrossRef143
Herminia Palacio, Caroline H. Shiboski, Edward H. Yelin, Nancy A. Hessol, Ruth M. Greenblatt. (1999) Access to and Utilization of Primary Care Services Among HIV-Infected Women. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 21:4, 293
CrossRef144
David R. Bangsberg, Andrew Moss. (1999) When Should We Delay Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy?. Journal of General Internal Medicine 14:7, 446-448
CrossRef145
Jonathan E. Kaplan, Deborah L. Parham, Lydia Soto-Torres, Karen van Dyck, Jo Anne Greaves, Kathy Rauch, Bruce Ellis, Harlan E. Amandus. (1999) Adherence to Guidelines for Antiretroviral Therapy and for Preventing Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents in Ryan White–Funded Facilities in the United States. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 21:3, 228
CrossRef146
Leon Eisenberg. (1999) Does social medicine still matter in an era of molecular medicine?. Journal of Urban Health 76:2, 164-175
CrossRef147
F. Sorvillo, P. Kerndt, S. Odem, M. Castillon, A. Carruth, R. Contreras. (1999) Use of protease inhibitors among persons with AIDS in Los Angeles County. AIDS Care 11:2, 147-155
CrossRef148
Eric G. Bing, Amy M. Kilbourne, Ronald A. Brooks, Ellen F. Lazarus, Mark Senak. (1999) Protease Inhibitor Use Among a Community Sample of People With HIV Disease. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 20:5, 474-480
CrossRef149
Judith Sackoff, Jeffrey McFarland, Shaun Su, Eula Bryan. (1998) Prophylaxis for Opportunistic Infections Among HIV-Infected Patients Receiving Medical Care. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 19:4, 387-392
CrossRef150
Donna B. Jeffe, Karen L. Meredith, Linda M. Mundy, Victoria J. Fraser. (1998) Factors Associated With HIV-Infected Patients' Recognition and Use of HIV Medications. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 19:4, 350-360
CrossRef151
Karina K Uldall, Laura A Koutsky, David H Bradshaw, Melissa Krone. (1998) Use of hospital services by AIDS patients with psychiatric illness. General Hospital Psychiatry 20:5, 292-301
CrossRef152
William E. Cunningham, Ron D. Hays, Margo K. Ettl, Wilfrid J. Dixon, Rebecca Ching-Chi Liu, C. Keith Beck, Martin F. Shapiro. (1998) The Prospective Effect of Access to Medical Care on Health-Related Quality-of-Life Outcomes in Patients with Symptomatic HIV Disease. Medical Care 36:3, 295-306
CrossRef153
Liza Solomon, Michael Stein, Colin Flynn, Paula Schuman, Ellie Schoenbaum, Janet Moore, Scott Holmberg, Neil M. H. Graham. (1998) Health Services Use by Urban Women With or at Risk for HIV-1 Infection: The HIV Epidemiology Research Study (HERS). Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 17:3, 253-261
CrossRef154
Carlo Contoreggi, md, Vivian E Rexroad, rph, W.Robert Lange, md, mph. (1998) Current Management of Infectious Complications in the Injecting Drug User. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 15:2, 95-106
CrossRef155
Barbara J. Turner, Md, Leona Markson, James Cocroft, Leon Cosler, Walter W. Hauck. (1998) Clinic HIV-Focused Features and Prevention of Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia. Journal of General Internal Medicine 13:1, 16-23
CrossRef156
Supriya Mehta, Richard D. Moore, Neil M.H. Graham. (1997) Potential factors affecting adherence with HIV therapy. AIDS 11:14, 1665-1670
CrossRef157
Jens D. Lundgren, Andrew N. Phillips, Stefano Vella, Christine Katlama, Bruno Ledergerber, Anne M. Johnson, Peter Reiss#, José Gatell, Nathan Clumeck, Manfred Dietrich, Thomas L. Benfield, Jens O. Nielsen, Court Pedersen. (1997) Regional Differences in Use of Antiretroviral Agents and Primary Prophylaxis in 3122 European HIV-Infected Patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 16:3, 153-160
CrossRef158
Constantine G. Lyketsos, Marc Fishman, Heidi Hutton, Todd Cox, Susan Hobbs, Charles Spoler, Wayne Hunt, Jeannine Driscoll, Glenn Treisman. (1997) The Effectiveness of Psychiatric Treatment for HIV-Infected Patients. Psychosomatics 38:5, 423-432
CrossRef159
Barbara A. Styrt, Richard E. Chaisson, Richard D. Moore. (1997) Prior antimicrobials and staphylococcal bacteremia in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 11:10, 1243-1248
CrossRef160
Sandra K. Schwarcz, Mitchell H. Katz, Anne Hirozawa, Jan Gurley, George F. Lemp. (1997) Prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. AIDS 11:10, 1263-1268
CrossRef161
&NA;. (1997) Use of Protease Inhibitors Among Persons With AIDS in Los Angeles County. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 15:2, 179-181
CrossRef162
Jonathan Senker. (1997) Gender, Race and Sexual Behaviour: Issues in Service Responses to HIV/AIDS. British Journal of Learning Disabilities 25:2, 58-63
CrossRef163
Richard D. Moore, Richard E. Chaisson. (1997) Costs to Medicaid of Advancing Immunosuppression in an Urban HIV-Infected Patient Population in Maryland. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:3, 223-231
CrossRef164
Rani Marx, Mitchell H. Katz, Min-Sun Park, R. Jan Gurley. (1997) Meeting the Service Needs of HIV-Infected Persons: Is the Ryan White CARE Act Succeeding?. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:1, 44-55
CrossRef165
Mitchell H. Katz, Rani Marx, John M. Douglas, Gail A. Bolan, Min-Sun Park, R. Jan Gurley, Susan P. Buchbinder. (1997) Insurance Type and Satisfaction with Medical Care Among HIV-Infected Men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:1, 35-43
CrossRef166
U. M. Cowgill. (1997) The distribution of selenium and mortality owing to acquired immune deficiency syndrome in the continental United States. Biological Trace Element Research 56:1, 43-61
CrossRef167
William E. Cunningham, David M. Mosen, Ron D. Hays, Ron M. Andersen, Martin F. Shapiro. (1996) Access to Community-Based Medical Services and Number of Hospitalizations Among Patients with HIV Disease: Are They Related?. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 13:4, 327-335
CrossRef168
Abby Shevitz, Marcello Pagano, Mary Ann Chiasson, Nancy Mueller, Pauline Thomas. (1996) The Association Between Youth, Women, and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 13:5, 427-433
CrossRef169
Michelle Murrain. (1996) Differential survival in blacks and Hispanics with AIDS. Ethnicity & Health 1:4, 373-382
CrossRef170
JOYCE A. KORVICK, PAMELA STRATTON, CATHIE SPINO, JIE HUANG, ARLENE D. BARDEGUEZ, CONSTANCE WOFSY. (1996) Women's Participation in AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) Trials in the USA: Enough or Still Too Few?. Journal of Women's Health 5:2, 129-136
CrossRef171
Gary Remafedi, Therese Lauer. (1996) The health and psychosocial status of HIV-seropositive youth in Minnesota. Journal of Adolescent Health 18:4, 263-269
CrossRef172
Richard E. Chaisson, Jeanne C. Keruly, Sharon McAvinue, Joel E. Gallant, Richard D. Moore. (1996) Effects of an Incentive and Education Program on Return Rates for PPD Test Reading in Patients with HIV Infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 11:5, 455-459
CrossRef173
Judith Lumley, Hilda Bastian. (1996) Competing or Complementary?: Ethical Considerations and the Quality of Randomized Trials. International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 12:02, 247
CrossRef174
(1996) Race, Sex, Drug Use, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Disease. New England Journal of Medicine 334:2, 123-124
Full Text175
Mark A. Jacobson, Holly Gundacker, Michael Hughes, Margaret Fischl, Paul Volberding. (1996) Zidovudine Side Effects As Reported by Black, Hispanic, and White/Non-Hispanic Patients with Early HIV Disease: Combined Analysis of Two Multicenter Placebo-Controlled Trials. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 11:1, 45-52
CrossRef176
MATTHEW R. GOLDEN, ANNE M. ROMPALO, LORI FANTRY, MINDI BEIN, TANYA PERKINS, DONALD R. HOOVER, JONATHAN M. ZENILMAN. (1996) Early Intervention for Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Baltimore Sexually Transmitted Diseases Clinics. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 23:5, 370-377
CrossRef177
J A Baron, J Barrett, J N Katz, M H Liang. (1996) Total hip arthroplasty: use and select complications in the US Medicare population.. American Journal of Public Health 86:1, 70-72
CrossRef178
Margaret M. Connors. (1995) The politics of marginalization: The appropriation of AIDS prevention messages among injection drug users. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 19:4, 425-452
CrossRef179
Chaisson, Richard E., Keruly, Jeanne C., Moore, Richard D., . (1995) Race, Sex, Drug Use, and Progression of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Disease. New England Journal of Medicine 333:12, 751-756
Full Text180
Valerie E. Stone, Joel S. Weissman, Paul D. Cleary. (1995) Satisfaction with ambulatory care of persons with AIDS. Journal of General Internal Medicine 10:5, 239-245
CrossRef181
P Braveman, S Egerter, F Edmonston, M Verdon. (1995) Racial/ethnic differences in the likelihood of cesarean delivery, California.. American Journal of Public Health 85:5, 625-630
CrossRef182
(1994) Racial Differences in the Use of Drug Therapy for HIV Disease. New England Journal of Medicine 331:5, 333-334
Full Text183
Sidney Dean Watson. (1994) Minority Access and Health Reform: A Civil Right to Health Care. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 22:2, 127-137
CrossRef
- Letters
