Original Article
Moderate Alcohol Intake, Increased Levels of High-Density Lipoprotein and Its Subfractions, and Decreased Risk of Myocardial Infarction
N Engl J Med 1993; 329:1829-1834December 16, 1993
- Abstract
Background
Previous studies have suggested that moderate alcohol intake exerts a protective effect against coronary heart disease. Alterations in plasma lipoprotein levels represent one plausible mechanism of this apparent protective effect.
Methods
We therefore examined the interrelation among alcohol consumption, plasma lipoprotein levels, and the risk of myocardial infarction in 340 patients who had had myocardial infarctions and an equal number of age- and sex-matched controls. The case patients were men or women less than 76 years of age with no history of coronary disease who were discharged from one of six hospitals in the Boston area with a diagnosis of a confirmed myocardial infarction. Alcohol consumption was estimated by means of a food-frequency questionnaire.
Results
We observed a significant inverse association between alcohol consumption and the risk of myocardial infarction (P for trend, <0.001 after control for known coronary risk factors). In multivariate analyses, the relative risk for the highest intake category (subjects who consumed three or more drinks per day) as compared with the lowest (those who had less than one drink a month) was 0.45 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.26 to 0.80). The levels of total high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) and its HDL2 and HDL3 subfractions were strongly associated with alcohol consumption (P for trend, <0.001 for each). The addition of HDL or either of its subfractions to the multivariate model substantially reduced the inverse association between alcohol intake and myocardial infarction, whereas the addition of the other plasma lipid measurements did not materially alter the relation.
Conclusions
These data confirm the inverse association of moderate alcohol intake with the risk of myocardial infarction and support the view that the effect is mediated, in large part, by increases in both HDL2 and HDL3.
Media in This Article
Table 1
Characteristics of Case Patients and Controls.Table 2
Coronary Risk Factors among the Controls, According to Alcohol Consumption.Article Activity
- Article
The effects of alcohol consumption on cardiovascular disease are complex. Although heavy alcohol intake increases overall mortality1-4 and mortality due to cardiovascular diseases,3-6 moderate intake appears to exert a protective effect against coronary heart disease, as compared with drinking no alcohol7-22.
The mechanisms by which moderate alcohol intake exerts this protective effect are not well understood. Alcohol intake raises the levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL),23-29 a fact that may explain, at least in part, its apparent protective effect against coronary heart disease30-33. However, previous studies with small numbers of subjects have had apparently inconsistent findings with respect to relations among alcohol, HDL levels, and myocardial infarction. Specifically, when subfractions of HDL were examined, the inverse relation between the HDL2 subfraction and the risk of myocardial infarction was clearly demonstrated, whereas the data on the role of HDL3 were less consistent34-36. Moreover, evidence from small studies appeared to indicate that moderate alcohol consumption raised the level of HDL3 but not HDL2 37-39. More recently, in data from both the present case-control study40 and a prospective cohort study,41 the levels of both subfractions have been shown to be independent predictors of myocardial infarction. In this case-control study, we examined the extent to which plasma lipoprotein levels, including those of HDL and its subfractions, mediate the relation between alcohol consumption and the risk of myocardial infarction.
Methods
We reviewed all admissions between January 1, 1982, and December 31, 1983, to the coronary care units and other intensive care units of six suburban Boston hospitals (Emerson Hospital, Framingham Union Hospital, Leonard Morse Hospital, Mount Auburn Hospital, Newton-Wellesley Hospital, and Waltham-Weston Hospital) to identify eligible patients. Those eligible for inclusion were white men or women less than 76 years of age who lived in the Boston area and had no history of previous myocardial infarction or angina pectoris, in whom symptoms of myocardial infarction had begun during the 24 hours before admission. Patients with a diagnosis of confirmed myocardial infarction, based on the clinical history and an increased creatine kinase concentration, who were discharged alive were enrolled in the study if they were willing and able to participate and if informed consent could be obtained from both the patient and the admitting physician. The research protocol was approved by the institutional human-subjects committees of all the participating hospitals.
For each case patient, a control was chosen at random from the list of residents of the town in which the patient lived. More specifically, the name of the case patient was located in the appropriate residence list of the town where the case patient lived, and the next resident of the same sex and age (within five years) who had a listed telephone number was selected as a control. Potentially eligible subjects were sent letters of invitation and then contacted by telephone. Of the eligible subjects contacted, 84 percent of the case patients and 60 percent of the controls were enrolled, yielding a total of 340 case-control pairs.
All case patients and controls were interviewed in their homes. The patients were interviewed approximately eight weeks after myocardial infarction. Information was collected on a wide variety of potential coronary risk factors during the period before the myocardial infarction (for the case patients) and before the interview (for the controls). This information covered age, sex, hypertension, cigarette smoking, body-mass index, family history of premature myocardial infarction (at less than 60 years of age), dietary intake, psychological variables, socioeconomic status, level of physical activity, and alcohol consumption. Information on diet and alcohol consumption was gathered by means of a semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire42,43. Psychological variables were measured with the use of 18 questions from the Framingham Heart Study (10 assessing type A behavior, 7 assessing anger, and 1 regarding the number of promotions over the past 10 years)44. Information on socioeconomic status included the subject's usual occupation and his or her educational level. Fasting venous blood samples were obtained and analyzed for lipids, including total HDL cholesterol and its HDL2 and HDL3 subfractions.
Total daily intake of alcohol was estimated on the basis of information about the consumption of beer, wine, and liquor during the year before the myocardial infarction, for the case patients, and the year before the interview, for the controls. Daily intake was estimated in grams according to the average number of grams of ethanol in a serving of each type of alcoholic beverage (beer, 13.2 g; wine, 10.8 g; liquor, 15.1 g). Total daily intake was then converted into the number of drinks per day by dividing the total daily consumption in grams by 13.2 g per drink (the ethanol content of one serving of beer). Four categories of alcohol intake were defined: less than one drink per month, one or more drinks per month but less than one per day, one or more drinks per day but less than three per day, and three or more drinks per day. Although the fourth category included heavy drinkers (defined as those with an average daily consumption of five or more drinks per day), there were relatively few such subjects (n = 38).
Fasting venous blood was drawn into tubes containing 0.1 percent EDTA, and plasma was obtained by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 30 minutes at 4 °C. Fresh plasma was used to determine the levels of total cholesterol, HDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL), and triglycerides by the methods of the Lipid Research Clinics45-47. Cholesterol determinations were standardized with the Lipid Standardization Program of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HDL subfractions were measured in fresh, unfrozen plasma from a subgroup of 558 subjects (283 case patients and 275 controls) by the dextran sulfate method of Gidez et al48. Apolipoproteins A-I, A-II, B, and E were measured with specific radioimmunoassays in samples from a total of 346 subjects (206 case patients and 140 controls)49-52. Plasma samples for apolipoprotein analyses had been stored at -70 °C for less than one year, with virtually identical storage times for those from case patients and controls.
Matched-pair and crude unmatched relative risks were calculated53. Since these were virtually identical, we judged that the matching could safely be disregarded and thereafter performed unmatched analyses. Although the results of our analyses with and without former drinkers were not materially different, many subjects who had recently stopped drinking may have been heavy consumers in the past, so the 19 subjects who reported ceasing alcohol consumption within the past two years were excluded. Relative risks were calculated for each of the three highest categories of alcohol consumption as compared with the lowest intake category.
Multiple logistic-regression analyses were used to estimate relative risks, with simultaneous control for a number of coronary risk factors54. Logistic regression was used in tests for trend. To determine the degree to which the levels of various lipids mediated any effect of alcohol, the levels of total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides, VLDL, HDL, HDL2, HDL3, and the ratio of HDL2 to HDL3 were added to the risk-factor model one at a time. Logistic-regression models were compared with the likelihood-ratio test. Similarly, we added the levels of apolipoproteins A-I, A-II, B, and E sequentially to a model containing the coronary risk factors and total HDL in order to determine the degree to which apolipoproteins mediate the effect of alcohol, beyond the effect of HDL.
Results
Base-line characteristics of the case patients and controls are shown in Table 1Table 1
Characteristics of Case Patients and Controls.. The coronary risk factors for each drinking category among the controls are shown in Table 2Table 2Coronary Risk Factors among the Controls, According to Alcohol Consumption.. The heavier drinkers were more likely to be men, to smoke cigarettes, to engage in physical activity, and to have a higher total caloric intake and were less likely to have diabetes.Adjusted relative risks for each intake category, as compared with the reference category, are shown in Table 3Table 3
Relative Risk of Myocardial Infarction, According to Alcohol Consumption.. The relative risks of myocardial infarction, adjusted for age and sex, were significantly reduced in the two highest alcohol-consumption categories. Specifically, the relative risk was 0.50 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.33 to 0.78) among those who consumed more than one but fewer than three drinks per day and 0.49 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.29 to 0.81) among those who consumed three or more drinks per day. The test for trend across alcohol-consumption categories was highly significant (P for trend, <0.001). Controlling for coronary risk factors in the logistic-regression analyses did not materially alter the results. Lipoprotein levels and complete data on risk factors were available for 541 subjects, after subjects who had recently stopped drinking were excluded. The results in this subgroup did not differ materially from those of the full model.The relations between alcohol consumption and lipoprotein levels are shown in Table 4Table 4
Plasma Lipid Levels, Adjusted for Age and Sex, According to Alcohol Consumption.. Total HDL, as well as both HDL2 and HDL3, were strongly associated with alcohol consumption, whereas no such relation was apparent for total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, or triglycerides. To determine the extent to which the reduced risk of myocardial infarction was mediated by lipids, each lipoprotein measurement was added individually to the risk-factor model. The addition of the total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, and triglyceride levels did not substantially alter the relation between alcohol and myocardial infarction (Table 5Table 5
Adjusted Relative Risk of Myocardial Infarction among Subjects Whose Lipid Levels Were Measured, According to Alcohol Consumption.). However, the apparent reductions in risk in the two highest categories for alcohol intake were substantially attenuated by the addition of total HDL, HDL2, HDL3, or both HDL2 and HDL3 to the model. Each subfraction appeared to have an independent attenuating effect. Thus, the apparent protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption appeared to be mediated, in large part, by both the HDL2 and HDL3 subfractions.Apolipoproteins A-I and A-II were also positively associated with alcohol consumption (P for trend, <0.001 for both A-I and A-II), whereas there was no such relation for apolipoproteins B and E. To determine whether the apparent risk reduction associated with moderate alcohol intake was further mediated by apolipoprotein levels, we added each apolipoprotein to the risk-factor model along with total HDL; adding the HDL2 or HDL3 subfraction did not significantly improve the model that included total HDL, according to the log-likelihood-ratio test (chi-square with one degree of freedom = 1.52, P = 0.22). The addition of apolipoproteins A-I and A-II did significantly improve the model and appeared to further attenuate the effect of alcohol consumption in the highest intake category. However, the sample size (n = 337) was relatively small, and the wide confidence intervals make these findings difficult to interpret. Specifically, the relative risk, adjusted for risk factors and the total HDL level, among subjects in the highest intake category as compared with those in the lowest changed from 0.85 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.35 to 2.05) to 0.94 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.38 to 2.33) after the addition of apolipoprotein A-I and to 1.08 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.42 to 2.77) after the addition of apolipoprotein A-II to the model. The addition of apolipoprotein B or apolipoprotein E did not materially alter the relation.
Discussion
These data indicate a significant inverse relation between alcohol consumption and the risk of myocardial infarction, even after the effects of other coronary risk factors have been taken into account. In addition, we found that alcohol consumption was associated with increased levels of HDL2 and HDL3, and that both subfractions were associated with decreased risks of myocardial infarction40. Thus, these data suggest a beneficial effect of alcohol consumption on the risk of myocardial infarction that is mediated in large part by alterations in lipoprotein levels -- in particular, by increases in both HDL subfractions. There was also a suggestion that the beneficial effect might be further mediated by increases in the levels of apolipoprotein A-I and A-II, but our data were insufficient to confirm this relation. Other potential contributing mechanisms, including alterations in hemostasis, could not be evaluated in this study.
A consistent body of evidence now supports the hypothesis that moderate alcohol intake reduces the risk of coronary heart disease8-16,22. Shaper et al. have suggested that the inverse association is due to the contamination of the nondrinking category with subjects who have reduced their drinking because of existing coronary heart disease55. However, this phenomenon would not explain the apparent dose-response relation reported in most studies. In our study, none of the case patients or controls were known to have preexisting coronary heart disease, and former drinkers who had recently stopped drinking were excluded from the analyses, so it is unlikely that this potential source of bias had any effect on our results. A U-shaped relation between alcohol consumption and coronary heart disease has been reported, with the lowest risks observed among moderate drinkers and the highest risks among heavy drinkers (defined as those consuming five or more alcoholic drinks per day)17-20. However, the current population did not include enough heavy drinkers for us to assess adequately the risk among heavy drinkers.
The evidence from both observational studies24-29,56 and experimental trials28,29 suggests that alcohol raises the level of total HDL, and that approximately 50 percent of the reduction in risk attributable to alcohol consumption is explained by the changes in total HDL26,27. The effect of alcohol consumption on the HDL subfractions is far less consistent; short-term trials39 and observational data37,38 among moderate drinkers support an association only with HDL3, whereas studies among alcoholic subjects have found evidence of increases in both subfractions57-61. Our study provides strong support for the hypothesis that levels of both HDL2 and HDL3 are increased by alcohol consumption and that increases in each subfraction decrease the risk of myocardial infarction. The apparent discrepancies among the reported results may reflect separate mechanisms for alcohol-induced alterations in each subfraction, though speculation about the specific mechanisms are beyond the scope of our study. With regard to apolipoproteins, increases in both A-I and A-II have been consistently associated with moderate alcohol intake, as demonstrated in our study37,62-64. However, the degree to which the protective effect of alcohol is mediated by apolipoproteins A-I and A-II, beyond the effect of HDL, remains unclear.
Several limitations should be considered in interpreting these results. First, only survivors of myocardial infarction were included in this study because of our need to obtain information on a large number of lifestyle variables as well as to allow transient alterations in lipoprotein levels to return to normal before plasma samples were obtained. As a result, we have probably underestimated the effect of many coronary risk factors because of our selection of the healthiest patients with myocardial infarction.
Second, although the choice of neighborhood rather than hospital controls had the advantage of providing a comparison group more likely to have come from the same population as the case patients, there was, as expected, a higher response rate among case patients than among controls. Nonresponse could, in theory, have biased our results, yet it seems unlikely that this occurred to any appreciable degree. The response rate among the controls varied among the neighborhoods of the six hospitals, and the observed associations were not appreciably different between those with higher response rates and those with lower rates. Furthermore, our results for other well-documented cardiovascular risk factors were consistent with those observed in previous studies.
With respect to potential confounding, one of the strengths of this study is that we were able to collect information on a wide variety of potential coronary risk factors, including demographic characteristics, medical history, and behavioral variables. Although it is possible that residual confounding by unmeasured factors could have affected the results, it is unlikely to have been extensive, since accounting for the large number of risk factors for which information was available did not materially affect the results.
The timing of blood collection could have affected lipid levels, since myocardial infarction is known to affect lipid metabolism in the short term. For this reason, we used blood specimens collected about eight weeks after hospital discharge, rather than samples drawn in the hospital. Several interventions after myocardial infarction may have altered lipid levels, including dietary modifications, exercise, and treatment for elevated cholesterol levels, as well as the use of beta-blockers or thiazide diuretics. Thus, confounding by the effects of interventions after myocardial infarction cannot be excluded. The overall result of these interventions would probably have been only slight increases in HDL levels among the case patients. Increasing HDL levels in the case patients would have caused us to underestimate the true association between this lipoprotein and the risk of myocardial infarction and thus to minimize the attenuation of the alcohol effect by HDL levels. We could not control for drug treatment or other interventions after myocardial infarction since the information collected from case patients covered the year before the event, not the period after discharge. However, adjustment for previous treatment for elevated cholesterol levels, as well as for the use of beta-blocker and thiazide drugs, did not materially alter the results.
The data on alcohol intake were collected for the year before myocardial infarction for the case patients, and changes in alcohol consumption after myocardial infarction could have affected the results. It is unlikely that subjects would have increased their alcohol intake for health reasons in the early 1980s. Cessation of alcohol consumption after myocardial infarction, with a subsequent reduction in the HDL cholesterol level, would have biased our results regarding the effect of HDL toward a finding of no effect. Furthermore, analyses were conducted in which subjects who reported stopping alcohol use within the past two years were excluded; the results were not materially different.
In summary, this case-control study demonstrates a significant inverse association between alcohol consumption and the risk of myocardial infarction. Our results also strongly suggest that the observed protective effect is mediated, in large part, by changes in HDL levels and more specifically by the levels of both the HDL2 and HDL3 subfractions, although other contributing mechanisms of action have not been excluded. Although we judge the association to be causal, any public health recommendations or recommendations for individual patients must take into account the complexity of the metabolic, physiologic, and psychological effects of alcohol. With alcohol, the differences between daily small-to-moderate amounts and large quantities may be the difference between preventing and causing disease. Finally, heavy alcohol consumption is a leading avoidable cause of death in the United States. Thus, an important implication of these data, which demonstrate that the benefit of alcohol levels on myocardial infarction is mediated in large part by increases in HDL, is that further research should be directed to finding safer methods of raising the level of this lipid.
Supported by research grants (HL-24423 and HL-21006) and an institutional training grant (HL-07575) from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
We are indebted to the six hospitals in the Boston area that participated in this study and to the respective collaborators: Emerson Hospital (Marvin H. Kendrick, M.D.), Framingham Union Hospital (Marvin Adner, M.D., and Gerald Evans, M.D.), Leonard Morse Hospital (L. Frederick Kaplan, M.D.), Mount Auburn Hospital (Leonard Zir, M.D.), Newton-Wellesley Hospital (James Sidd, M.D.), and Waltham-Weston Hospital (Solomon Gabbay, M.D.); we are also indebted to Peter Herbert and Conrad Blum for performing the apolipoprotein analyses, and to Anne Cadigan for assistance in the preparation of the manuscript.
Source Information
From the Division of Preventive Medicine (J.M.G., J.E.B., M.V., C.H.H.), the Channing Laboratory (S.Z.G., B.R., W.W.), and the Cardiovascular Division (J.M.G., S.Z.G.), Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston; the Department of Ambulatory Care and Prevention, Harvard Medical School, Boston (J.E.B., C.H.H.); the Departments of Nutrition and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston (W.W.); the Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, West Roxbury, Mass. (J.M.G.); and the Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics and Metabolism, Rockefeller University, New York (J.L.B.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Gaziano at Brigham and Women's Hospital, 900 Commonwealth Ave. East, Boston, MA 02215-1204.
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