Original Article
The Declining Risk of Post-Transfusion Hepatitis C Virus Infection
N Engl J Med 1992; 327:369-373August 6, 1992
- Abstract
- Abstract
Background.
The most common serious complication of blood transfusion is post-transfusion hepatitis from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Blood banks now screen blood donors for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis and antibodies to HCV, but the current risk of post-transfusion hepatitis C is unknown.
Methods.
From 1985 through 1991, blood samples and medical information were obtained prospectively from patients before and at least six months after cardiac surgery. The stored serum samples were tested for antibodies to HCV by enzyme immunoassay, and by recombinant immunoblotting if positive.
Results.
Of the 912 patients who received transfusions before donors were screened for surrogate markers, 35 seroconverted to HCV, for a risk of 3.84 percent per patient (0.45 percent per unit transfused). For the 976 patients who received transfusions after October 1986 with blood screened for surrogate markers, the risk of seroconversion was 1.54 percent per patient (0.19 percent per unit). For the 522 patients receiving transfusions since the addition in May 1990 of screening for antibodies to HCV, the risk was 0.57 percent per patient (0.03 percent per unit). The trend toward decreasing risk with increasingly stringent screening of donors was statistically significant (P<0.001). After we controlled for the method of donor screening, the risk of seroconversion was strongly associated (P<0.001) with the volume of blood transfused, but not with the use of particular blood components.
Conclusions.
The incidence of post-transfusion hepatitis C has decreased markedly since the implementation of donor screening for surrogate markers and antibodies to HCV. The current risk of post-transfusion hepatitis is about 3 per 10,000 units transfused. (N Engl J Med 1992; 327:369–73.)
Media in This Article
Table 1
Characteristics of the Study Population, According to the Method Used to Screen the Donor's Blood.Table 2
Rates of HCV Seroconversion, According to the Method Used to Screen Donated Blood.Article Activity
- Article
THE current risk of transfusion-associated non-A, non-B hepatitis is unknown, but it is undoubtedly lower than the estimates of 5 to 18 percent that were given in prospective studies conducted in the 1970s and early 1980s.1 2 3 Research conducted during that period to identify the etiologic agent or agents of non-A, non-B hepatitis was unsuccessful, as were attempts to develop an assay to screen blood obtained from potentially infectious donors.4 In the absence of a specific test, in late 1986 blood-collection agencies began screening donated blood for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis — namely, elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase and antibody to the hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc). On the basis of a retrospective analysis of data from a study of blood donors and patients with post-transfusion hepatitis at the National Institutes of Health, a reduction of 30 to 50 percent was predicted for the incidence of non-A, non-B hepatitis after the implementation of surrogate-marker screening.5 However, no prospective evaluation of the effectiveness of such screening was conducted.
Recently, molecular techniques were used to derive clones from the genome of an agent associated with parenterally transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis, now termed11 "hepatitis C virus" (HCV).6 The proteins derived from these clones were then used to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies to HCV.7 After this assay was licensed in May 1990 by the Food and Drug Administration, it was immediately implemented by all blood-collection agencies in the United States as part of the routine screening of donors. We undertook this study to determine the risk of transfusion-transmitted HCV infection in a cohort of patients undergoing cardiac surgery, and to evaluate the effectiveness of screening and excluding donors on the basis of testing for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis and antibodies to HCV.
Methods
Patients
The 2931 patients tested for antibodies to HCV were a subgroup of the 11,532 participants in a multicenter prospective study designed to determine the risk of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in adults undergoing cardiac surgery.8 The first 818 of the 11,532 patients underwent surgery during the period April 1985 through May 1986 and were originally enrolled in a study of postoperative wound infections that has been described elsewhere.9 The remaining 10,714 patients were enrolled during the period June 1986 through February 1991 at three hospitals: Johns Hopkins Hospital, in Baltimore, and St. Luke's Episcopal Hospital and the Methodist Hospital, both in Houston. The data from the Baltimore and Houston sites were combined in this analysis, because the rates of HCV seroprevalence in the blood donors at these sites were similar (0.65 percent and 0.71 percent, respectively).
Because the risk of HCV transmission was considered likely to vary according to the policy in effect at the time of surgery regarding blood-donor screening, the patients were stratified into three groups according to the date of surgery and the screening method used. The first group included all 1054 patients who underwent cardiac surgery from April 1, 1985, through September 30, 1986. These patients were potential recipients of blood routinely screened by blood banks for HIV-1, syphilis, and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). The second group included a sample of 1223 patients who underwent surgery from October 1, 1986, through May 4, 1990; they were selected from the larger group by a random-number generator. These patients were potential recipients of blood screened routinely as described above, but also screened for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis (i.e., for elevated concentrations of alanine aminotransferase and for the presence of anti-HBc antibody). The third group included the first 654 consecutive patients to undergo cardiac surgery from May 5, 1990, through February 28, 1991. These patients were potential recipients of blood screened for antibodies to HCV in addition to the agents mentioned above.
In this report, a unit of blood refers to a unit of any blood component (i.e., red cells, platelets, plasma, cryoprecipitates, or whole blood). A serum sample was obtained from each patient before surgery, and information was abstracted from each patient's hospital record. Another serum sample was obtained approximately six months after cardiac surgery, at which time the patient was asked to complete a questionnaire with updated medical information.
HCV Serologic Testing
The postoperative serum samples, stored at -80°C, were assayed for antibodies to HCV in the serology laboratory at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health with the licensed first-generation ELISA (Ortho Diagnostics, Raritan, N.J.), which contains the HCV antigens 5–1–1 and C100–3. Samples that were initially reactive were retested in duplicate according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Samples that were positive on at least two of the three ELISA tests were tested by a recombinant immunoblot assay (4-RIBA, Ortho/Chiron, Raritan, N.J.), according to the manufacturer's recommendations. The 4-RIBA consists of nitrocellulose strips coated with three nonstructural HCV antigens and one antigen from the core region. At least two viral bands must be reactive for a sample to be considered positive. A patient was considered to have HCV antibodies if at least two of the three ELISA tests and the RIBA were positive. When the postoperative sample was scored as positive, the corresponding preoperative samples were tested in a similar manner. Most of the serum samples, some of which had been frozen for as long as six years, were thawed for the first time to be tested for HCV antibodies.
Statistical Analysis
Rates of seroconversion and tests for trend were compared by exact methods with use of contingency tables.10 Multiple logistic regression was used to calculate the relative odds and 95 percent confidence intervals of HCV seroconversion according to the method of donor screening used, the number of units transfused, and the composition of the units transfused.10 The analysis was restricted to patients who underwent transfusion. We used the first group (the patients who underwent surgery before screening for surrogate markers was available) as the reference group. The number of units transfused was categorized as 1 to 4, 5 to 12, or more than 12 units, with 1 to 4 being the reference category. Because the variation in the composition of the units was limited in the case of low-volume transfusions (i.e., those of four units or less), the analysis of the composition of the units was restricted to patients who received more than four units in transfusion. The proportions of red cells (and whole blood), platelets, and plasma (including cryoprecipitates) were centered on their average values for the patients in the first screening period, so that comparisons were made in relation to a typical transfusion recipient. Since the three proportions add up to 1, only two of the three elements, platelets and plasma, were used as covariates in the regression model. Thus, the terms entered into the model were the method of donor screening, the number of units transfused, and the percentage of units that consisted of platelets and plasma. The addition of individual risk factors to the model was assessed for significance by subtracting the deviance of the extended model from the reference model; the difference has a chi-square distribution with a number of degrees of freedom equal to the number of parameters added to the model.
Results
Table 1Table 1
Characteristics of the Study Population, According to the Method Used to Screen the Donor's Blood. shows the characteristics of the patients tested for antibodies to HCV, according to the donor-screening method used at the time of their surgery. Coronary-artery bypass surgery was the most common procedure performed in each period, but aneurysm surgery was more than five times as common in the third period as in the previous periods. The percentages of surgical procedures in Table 1 exceed 100 percent because some patients had more than one procedure. Aneurysm surgery typically required more blood than coronary-artery bypass surgery (30 vs. 8 units). As a result, the patients undergoing surgery in the third period (May 1990 to February 1991) had larger transfusions than those in the first two periods; 38 percent of them received more than 12 units of blood, as compared with 21 percent and 16 percent of the patients treated in the first and second periods, respectively. In the third period, the mean number of units transfused per person was more than twice the number for the two earlier periods. The average composition of a transfusion was similar for patients who had transfusions in the first two periods. Approximately 70 percent of the units transfused were red cells, 20 percent were platelets, and the remainder were plasma. In the third period, the proportions of platelets and plasma were higher. This difference was also related to the larger number of surgeries related to aneurysm.The interval between the date of surgery and the postoperative visit was at least five months for more than 95 percent of our study participants. However, the interval was twice as long for the patients in the first period than for those in the second and third periods, because 818 patients were not concurrently enrolled in the study of transfusion-transmitted HIV-1. These patients had been enrolled in a previous study of postoperative wound infections. The patients studied in all three periods were similar with regard to age, sex, race, and education.
Of the 2931 postoperative serum samples assayed for antibodies to HCV, 152 (5.2 percent) were initially reactive by ELISA, and 128 of these (4.4 percent) were repeatedly reactive. Of the repeatedly reactive samples, 108 were positive by RIBA. A total of 54 patients seroconverted to HCV positivity between the time of surgery and the follow-up visit, for an overall seroconversion rate of 1.9 percent. Another 54 patients (1.8 percent) were seropositive for HCV in both the preoperative and postoperative serum samples and were therefore classified as having seroprevalent infections. Six patients were found to be repeatedly reactive by ELISA, but the results were indeterminate by RIBA; they were excluded from the analysis. Fourteen ELISA-positive, RIBA-negative patients were classified as HCV-seronegative.
The rates of seroconversion to HCV for each patient at risk undergoing a transfusion are shown in Table 2Table 2
Rates of HCV Seroconversion, According to the Method Used to Screen Donated Blood. for each category of donor screening. One of the 54 patients who seroconverted to HCV was among the 464 patients who did not have a transfusion (seroconversion rate in patients not undergoing transfusion, 0.2 percent). The patients who did not undergo transfusion were excluded from further analysis, together with the 51 patients who had transfusions and seroprevalent HCV infections (the other 3 such patients did not have transfusions) and the 6 patients with indeterminate results by RIBA. Thus, a total of 2410 patients were analyzed in Table 2. The rate of HCV seroconversion was 3.8 percent among the patients who underwent surgery before the implementation of donor screening for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis. This rate was two and a half times higher (P = 0.001) than the rate in patients who underwent surgery when donors were being screened for surrogate markers (1.5 percent) but not for antibodies to HCV. An additional reduction in the risk of HCV infection (to 0.6 percent) was found for those who underwent surgery after the screening of donors for antibodies to HCV began (P = 0.08). This trend of decreasing risk in patients undergoing transfusion when increasingly stringent donor-screening procedures were in effect was significant (P<0.001).Since the mean number of units transfused per patient in the third period was considerably higher than in either of the previous periods, the seroconversion rates are also presented per unit transfused (Table 2). When blood was screened for both surrogate markers and antibodies to HCV, the risk of HCV seroconversion in patients undergoing surgery was 0.03 percent per unit or 3 per 10,000 units transfused. This risk was significantly reduced (P = 0.001) from that in the previous period (19 per 10,000 units), which in turn was reduced (P = 0.002) from that in the first period (45 per 10,000 units). The trend toward decreasing risk per unit transfused was statistically significant (P<0.001).
Table 3Table 3
Adjusted Relative Odds of HCV Seroconversion, According to Screening Method and Number and Composition of Units Transfused. shows the relative odds for HCV seroconversion as derived from the logistic-regression model. As in Table 2, patients who did not have a transfusion are excluded. The risk of seroconversion to HCV increased with the number of units transfused after adjustment for the type of screening used. The dose–response relation was strong. In relation to patients given 1 to 4 units of blood, the odds ratio for seroconversion was 2.67 in patients given 5 to 12 units. The odds of seroconversion in patients receiving more than 12 units were nearly six times those for patients receiving 1 to 4 units. Both these estimates were significantly higher than 1. Although the small number of seroconversions observed in the third period precluded the analysis of units transfused in each period considered separately, the dose–response association was very consistent in the first two periods. Furthermore, the three patients who seroconverted in the third period had transfusions involving relatively large amounts of blood (10, 29, and 54 units).Using logistic regression, we evaluated the additional effect on HCV seroconversion of the composition of the transfusion (Table 3). Only patients who had transfusions of at least five units were included in this analysis, because for patients who had transfusions of one to four units, 90 percent of the transfusions consisted of red cells, making it difficult to analyze the risk associated with the transfusion of platelets or plasma. Extending the model to incorporate the composition of the units transfused did not significantly improve the fit of the model (P = 0.771). With higher proportions of either platelets or plasma, the risk of HCV seroconversion increased only slightly. For example, a 10 percent increase in the number of units of platelets increased the odds ratio for HCV to only 1.05, in relation to a patient whose transfusion had an average composition (P not significant). The same result was found in the case of a 10 percent increment of plasma units.
Of the 54 patients who seroconverted to HCV, only 10 (19 percent) reported having been given a diagnosis of hepatitis by a health professional in the period after their cardiac surgery. This proportion was significantly larger, however, than the 1.0 percent of the 2821 seronegative patients who reported hepatitis (P<0.001). The incidence of hepatitis reported by either patients who seroconverted or those who were seronegative was not associated with demographic variables, the number of units transfused, or the length of stay in the hospital.
Discussion
To determine the incidence of HCV transmission by transfusion and to evaluate the donor-screening policies implemented to reduce the risk of transfusion-associated hepatitis, we performed assays for antibodies to HCV in blood samples from adult patients that were obtained approximately six months after cardiac surgery, from 1985 through 1991. The rate of HCV seroconversion in the patients who underwent transfusion and surgery in 1985–1986 (3.8 percent) was considerably lower than the incidence of 10 to 13 percent reported for transfusion-associated non-A, non-B hepatitis by two studies in 1981.2 , 11 One possible explanation for this apparent discrepancy is that the end point used in the earlier studies was an elevated concentration of alanine aminotransferase, which can have various infectious and noninfectious causes,12 whereas the end point in our study was seroconversion to HCV. In addition, the recognition of transfusion-transmitted HIV in 198213 prompted changes in donor-exclusion criteria in 1983, 1984, and 1985, which, together with the institution in March 1985 of donor screening for antibodies to HIV, may have reduced the risk of HCV infection.14
In this study, the risk of HCV seroconversion per unit transfused during the period when donors were screened for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis was 0.19 percent, a 56 percent reduction over the previous period. This result was in accord with the predicted efficacy of surrogate-marker screening.1 , 5 More recently, studies have shown that at least 80 percent of the transfusion-associated non-A, non-B hepatitis can be attributed to HCV by currently available assays.15 , 16 The interval from the time of transfusion to the time of the collection of the postoperative blood sample was twice as long in the case of patients undergoing transfusion with blood not screened for surrogate markers as the same interval for the patients in the subsequent period. However, the number of additional seroconversions expected with a longer follow-up in the second period would probably be negligible; several studies have observed that 85 to 95 percent of patients infected with HCV by blood transfusion become seropositive within six months.15 , 17 18 19
The screening of donors for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis has resulted in the rejection of 2 to 4 percent of the units donated, most of which would not have transmitted the disease.20 The sensitivity and specificity of these tests are less than 60 percent, with positive predictive values of only 12 percent.21 Nonetheless, it is unlikely that the screening of donated blood for surrogate markers will be eliminated, because the markers may identify persons in the "window" period of HCV infection, which may be as long as one year.22 Surrogate markers may also identify persons infected with another non-A, non-B hepatitis virus,23 those infected with an HBsAg-negative variant of HBV,24 or those with a false negative HBsAg test because of immune complexes or levels of HBsAg below the sensitivity of the tests.
In our study, the screening of donors for antibodies to HCV coincided with a significant 84 percent decrease in the risk of HCV seroconversion per unit transfused, as compared with the period when donors were screened only for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis. If one assumes the effect of the number of units transfused to be the same in all three screening periods, estimates from the model would indicate that the risk of HCV seroconversion in patients receiving more than 12 units of blood screened for surrogate markers and antibodies to HCV was 40 percent lower than the risk in patients who received only 1 to 4 units before surrogate-marker screening.
The relation between HCV seroconversion and donor screening was not confounded by the number of units of blood transfused. Furthermore, we observed a strong dose–response relation between the number of units transfused and the risk of seroconversion among patients in the two screening periods before screening for antibodies to HCV. The number of units given in transfusion to the three persons who seroconverted during the third period suggests a similar trend. To date, no similar prospective evaluation of the effectiveness of screening for antibodies to HCV in U.S. blood donors has been reported. Recent reports from Japan and Spain document decreases of 60 to 80 percent in the incidence of post-transfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis after the implementation of screening of donors for antibodies to HCV in addition to, or at the same time as, screening for surrogate markers.25 , 26
In this cohort study, the screening of donors for surrogate markers of non-A, non-B hepatitis reduced the risk of transfusion-associated HCV infection. A substantial further reduction in risk was observed after screening for antibodies to HCV. However, transfusion-associated hepatitis due to HCV is likely to remain a complication of transfusion therapy, for at least two reasons: the window period for the virus is generally three to four months long but may be as long as one year,22 and a person may be a seronegative carrier.27 The effectiveness of donor screening should improve with the introduction of improved screening assays that shorten the window period and yield fewer false negatives than first-generation assays.16 The introduction of such assays may lower the risk of transfusion-associated HCV infection below the rates of 0.6 percent per patient and 0.03 percent per unit that were observed in this study.
Supported in part under a contract (NO1-HB-86–7025) and by a grant (RO1-HL-45333–01A2) from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, and by an Outpatient Clinical Research Centers grant (5M01RR00722) from the National Institutes of Health.
We are indebted to Dr. Noah D. Cohen, Veronica Stambolis, Dr. Tippavan Nagachinta, and Marlene Harper for their contributions to this investigation.
Source Information
From the Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore (J.G.D., A.M., D.E.B., K.E.N.); the Departments of Pathology (P.M.N.) and Cardiac Surgery (B.A.R.), Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore; the Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine and the Methodist Hospital, Houston (D.H.Y.); and the Department of Cardiac Pathology, St. Luke's Episcopal Hospital, Houston (H.A.M.). Address reprint requests to Dr. Nelson at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, 624 N. Broadway, Rm. 763, Baltimore, MD 21205.
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Jean-Jacques Lefrère, Jean-François Cantaloube, Christine Defer, Bernard Mercier, Pascale Loiseau, Dominique Vignon, Jean-Michel Pawlotsky, Philippe Biagini, Joelle Lerable, Philippe Rouger, Françoise Roudot-Thoraval, Claude Férec. (1999) Screening for HBV, HCV and HIV genomes in blood donations: shortcomings of pooling revealed by a multicentre study simulating real-time testing. Journal of Virological Methods 80:1, 33-44
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Olympia Papakonstantinou, Stavroula Kostaridou, Thomas Manʼs, Athanasios Gouliamos, Evagelos Premetis, Vasilios Kouloulias, Lydia Nakopoulou, Christos Kattamis. (1999) Quantification of Liver Iron Overload by T2 Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Thalassemia. Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology 21:2, 142-148
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MASSIMO GIULIANI, FEDERICO CAPRILLI, GIULIO GENTILI, ANTONIO MAINI, ALESSANDRO COZZI LEPRI, GRAZIA PRIGNANO, GUIDO PALAMARA, AMALIA GIGLIO, ERCOLE CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI REZZA. (1997) Incidence and Determinants of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among Individuals at Risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases Attending a Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Testing Program. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 24:9, 533-537
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