Original Article
Treatment of Supraventricular Tachycardia Due to Atrioventricular Nodal Reentry by Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation of Slow-Pathway Conduction
N Engl J Med 1992; 327:313-318July 30, 1992
- Abstract
- Abstract
Background.
Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT), the most common form of supraventricular tachycardia, results from conduction through a reentrant circuit comprising fast and slow atrioventricular nodal pathways. Antiarrhythmic-drug therapy is not consistently successful in controlling this rhythm disturbance. Catheter ablation of the fast pathway with radiofrequency current eliminates AVNRT, but it can produce heart block. We hypothesized that catheter ablation of the site of insertion of the slow pathway into the atrium would eliminate AVNRT while leaving normal (fast-pathway) atrioventricular nodal conduction intact.
Methods and Results.
Eighty patients with symptomatic AVNRT were studied. Retrograde slow-pathway conduction (in which the earliest retrograde atrial potential was recorded at the posterior septum, close to the coronary sinus) was present in 33 patients. The retrograde atrial potential was preceded by a potential consistent with activation of the atrial end of the slow pathway (ASP). In 46 of the 47 patients without retrograde slow-pathway conduction, a potential with the same characteristics as the ASP potential was recorded during sinus rhythm. Radiofrequency current delivered through a catheter to the ASP site (in the posteroseptal right atrium or coronary sinus) abolished or modified slow-pathway conduction in 78 patients, eliminating AVNRT without affecting normal atrioventricular nodal conduction. In the single patient without ASP, the application of radiofrequency current to the proximal coronary sinus ablated the fast pathway and AVNRT. Atrioventricular block occurred in one patient (1.3 percent) with left bundle-branch block, after inadvertent ablation of the right bundle branch. AVNRT has not recurred in any patient during a mean (±SD) follow-up of 15.5±11.3 months. Electrophysiologic study 4.3±3.3 months after ablation in 32 patients demonstrated normal atrioventricular nodal conduction without AVNRT.
Conclusions.
Catheter ablation of the atrial end of the slow pathway using radiofrequency current, guided by ASP potentials, can eliminate AVNRT with very little risk of atrioventricular block. (N Engl J Med 1992;327:313–8.)
Media in This Article
Figure 1
Characteristic Potentials Recorded from the Posterior Septum at the Site of Successful Slow-Pathway Ablation in a Patient with Both Common (Slow—Fast) and Uncommon (Fast—Slow) Forms of AVNRT.Figure 2
Evidence of Separate Origins of the ASP and Atrial Potentials.Article Activity
- Article
ATRIOVENTRICULAR nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is the most common form of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.1 The reentrant circuit contains, as its critical components, a "fast" atrioventricular nodal pathway connecting the atrium to the His bundle and a "slow" pathway with a longer conduction time. In approximately 90 percent of patients, the slow pathway provides the antegrade limb of the circuit and the fast pathway the retrograde limb (the "slow—fast" or common form of AVNRT), but the circuit may be reversed (to the "fast—slow" or uncommon form). The fast pathway is thought to be the normal route of atrioventricular conduction, whereas the slow pathway has no known function.
Surgical procedures designed to interrupt the connections between the atrioventricular node and the atria eliminate AVNRT, with an incidence of heart block of less than 3 percent.2 3 4 5 AVNRT can also be eliminated by modifying the atrioventricular node with destructive energy delivered through catheters near the junction of the node with the His bundle.6 7 8 9 10 The atrioventricular nodal conduction time is prolonged after such procedures, indicating that the normal antegrade fast pathway has been destroyed or damaged. In some patients (up to 10 percent), atrioventricular conduction is totally eliminated, necessitating the implantation of a pacemaker.6 7 8 9 10
The junction of the slow pathway and the atrium is located posterior to the atrioventricular node, near the coronary sinus.11 We postulated that slow-pathway conduction could be interrupted without affecting normal atrioventricular conduction through the fast pathway by ablating small segments of myocardium in the posterior septum near the coronary sinus with radiofrequency current delivered through catheter electrodes. Our objective was to abolish AVNRT with a low risk of heart block.
Methods
Study Population
The study population consisted of the first 80 patients to undergo catheter ablation using radiofrequency current at the site of the atrial insertion of the slow pathway in order to eliminate AVNRT. There were 24 men and 56 women, ranging in age from 4 to 76 years (mean [±SD], 41.7±17.5). Fourteen had structural heart disease: coronary artery disease in three, mitral-valve prolapse in five, aortic valve disease in two, cardiomyopathy in two, pulmonic stenosis and ventricular septal defect in one, and situs inversus in one. The patients had had episodes of tachycardia for 14.9±11.9 years and had been treated unsuccessfully with 3.0±1.6 antiarrhythmic drugs. Tachycardia occurred every 1 to 7 days in 48 of the 80 patients, every 7 to 30 days in 17 patients, and at longer intervals in 15 patients. Thirty-one patients had syncope, 20 others had near-syncope, and 62 had substantial chest pain or dyspnea associated with the tachycardia.
The study protocol was approved by the institutional review board. After providing written informed consent, each patient was studied in the fasting state under heavy sedation with fentanyl (50 to 150 μg per hour) and midazolam (2 to 6 mg per hour). Five multi-electrode catheters (with a distance of 2 mm between electrodes) were inserted percutaneously into the right subclavian, right femoral, and left femoral veins.12 Sustained tachycardia was induced by programmed stimulation, and the presence of mechanisms other than atrioventricular nodal reentry was excluded by standard techniques.13 The antegrade and retrograde conduction properties of the fast and slow atrioventricular nodal pathways were assessed by programmed atrial and ventricular stimulation.
In patients who had retrograde conduction over the slow pathway, the atrial insertion of this pathway was defined as the site of earliest atrial activation during such conduction, as located by mapping the right atrial septum and the coronary sinus. Selective retrograde conduction over the slow pathway was obtained by inducing either the uncommon form of AVNRT or single echo beats that use the slow pathway for retrograde conduction, or by techniques of ventricular pacing that resulted in retrograde block in the fast pathway. Such a block was facilitated by heavy sedation and, in some patients, by the administration of adenosine or esmolol. Electrograms recorded near the sites of earliest atrial activation during retrograde slow-pathway conduction showed a characteristic pattern of dual potentials (Fig. 1Figure 1
Characteristic Potentials Recorded from the Posterior Septum at the Site of Successful Slow-Pathway Ablation in a Patient with Both Common (Slow—Fast) and Uncommon (Fast—Slow) Forms of AVNRT.A). Separate origins for the two potentials were suggested by the response to late atrial extrasystoles, which advanced the timing of the second potential (coincident with the advance of the atrial potential in the nearby His-bundle recording) without altering the timing or morphologic aspects of the first potential (Fig. 2Figure 2Evidence of Separate Origins of the ASP and Atrial Potentials.C). This response suggests that the second potential represents local atrial activation. The first potential (ASP) may represent the activation of the atrial connection (or insertion) with the slow pathway. Recordings at these sites during sinus rhythm also showed the ASP and atrial potentials, but in reverse order, with the ASP potential following the atrial potential (Fig. 1B and 2A). The ASP potential in sinus rhythm was used to identify the atrial insertion of the slow pathway in the patients who did not have retrograde slow-pathway conduction (Fig. 3Figure 3
Effects of Slow-Pathway Ablation on the ASP Potential and Fast-Pathway Conduction.A).Application of Radiofrequency Current
A quadripolar catheter with a distance of 2 mm between electrodes, a large-tip electrode (7 French; length, 4 mm), and a deflectable curve was used for ablation.14 The catheter was inserted through a right femoral venous sheath, and the tip electrode was positioned firmly at the site from which the largest, sharpest, and earliest ASP potential was recorded (from the distal pair of electrodes) during retrograde slow-pathway conduction (Fig. 1A and 2B), or from which the largest, sharpest, and latest ASP potential was recorded during sinus rhythm (Fig. 3A). Radiofrequency current (550 to 750 kHz) was delivered at 45 to 70 V between the catheter-tip electrode and an adhesive electrosurgical dispersive pad applied to the left posterior chest.12 , 14 Root-mean-square voltage, current, and impedance were monitored. Current was applied for 45 seconds or longer but was terminated immediately in the event of an increase in impedance or displacement of the catheter electrode.
Radiofrequency current was applied during AVNRT or right ventricular pacing with retrograde slow-pathway conduction in 18 patients. In the remaining 62 patients, radiofrequency current was applied during sinus rhythm for improved electrode—tissue contact because of the slower heart rate and to monitor antegrade fast pathway conduction. After the application of current, programmed atrial and ventricular stimulation was repeated before and during the administration of isoproterenol (1 to 2 μg per minute). If AVNRT or 1:1 slow-pathway conduction (antegrade or retrograde) was still present during decremental atrial or ventricular pacing, radiofrequency current was reapplied at the same site after electrode—tissue contact had been improved or at another site if there was a change in the site of earliest atrial activation during retrograde slow-pathway conduction or in the site from which a large, sharp ASP potential was recorded. The procedure was terminated when AVNRT could not be induced and 1:1 slow-pathway conduction was absent for at least one hour.
Treatment after Ablation
The patients were monitored in an ambulatory unit and discharged two days after ablation. Transesophageal echocardiography was performed 18 to 72 hours after ablation in 70 patients. The last 31 patients to be studied received aspirin (325 mg daily) for six weeks. Anticoagulant therapy was not used routinely in the other patients. None of the patients received antiarrhythmic drugs after ablation.
The patients were followed by the investigators or the referring physicians. Electrocardiographic monitoring was not performed routinely on an outpatient basis. A follow-up electrophysiologic study two to three months after ablation was recommended. follow-up information was obtained by telephone or written questionnaire.
Statistical Analysis
Electrophysiologic measurements obtained before and after ablation, as well as those obtained before ablation and during follow-up, were compared by a two-tailed, paired t-test using the means procedure provided by an SAS statistical package.
Results
Programmed atrial and ventricular stimulation induced slow—fast AVNRT in 69 of the 80 patients (86 percent), fast—slow AVNRT in 4 patients (5 percent), and both forms in 7 patients (9 percent). The mean cycle length of the tachycardia was 338±70 msec.
Retrograde fast-pathway conduction was present in all patients. The site of earliest atrial activation during retrograde fast-pathway conduction was located in the anterior septum, close to the bundle of His (shaded region in Fig. 4Figure 4
Schematic Representation of the Septum as Viewed Fluoroscopically in the Right and Left Anterior Oblique Projections, Showing the 98 Sites of Successful Slow-Pathway Ablation in the 78 Patients.). Selective retrograde conduction over the slow pathway (for at least one complex) was produced in 33 patients (41 percent), including the 11 patients with fast—slow AVNRT and 22 of the 69 patients who had only slow—fast AVNRT. In all 33 patients, the shift from retrograde fast-pathway conduction to retrograde slow-pathway conduction was associated with a shift in the site of earliest atrial activation to the posterior septum, either in the region between the coronarysinus ostium and the tricuspid annulus or in the coronary sinus (Fig. 4). Bipolar electrograms recorded near the site of the earliest atrial activation during retrograde slow-pathway conduction showed a distinct ASP potential preceding the retrograde atrial potential in all 33 patients (Fig. 1A and 2B). The ASP potential was also recorded during sinus rhythm, in which case it followed the atrial potential (Fig. 1B and 2A).In 46 of the 47 patients without retrograde slow-pathway conduction, a potential with the same characteristics as the ASP potential was recorded during sinus rhythm in the posteroseptal region (Fig. 3A). The largest, sharpest, and latest ASP potential in sinus rhythm was most often recorded along the posteroseptal right atrium, close to the tricuspid annulus (Fig. 4), where the atrial potential was small and the ventricular potential was large (Fig. 1B and 3A). The ASP potential was often recorded after atrial activation in the proximal coronary sinus (Fig. 3A). The region in which a large, sharp ASP potential was recorded was usually less than 5 mm in diameter, and its location varied among the patients (Fig. 4). The interval between the local atrial potential and the ASP potential during sinus rhythm ranged from 10 to 40 msec (mean, 24.3±7.3).
Catheter ablation using radiofrequency current eliminated AVNRT in all 80 patients in a single procedure. This resulted from the elimination or depression of slow-pathway conduction in 78 of the 80 patients. In 27 of these 78 patients (35 percent), both antegrade and retrograde slow-pathway conduction were completely eliminated. Some degree of slow-pathway conduction remained in 51 patients (65 percent), but the residual slow pathway could not sustain 1:1 conduction, and only single echo beats occurred with programmed stimulation during the administration of isoproterenol.
The sites of successful application of radiofrequency current were distributed broadly in the posteroseptal region, with most located along the posteroseptal right atrium between the coronary-sinus ostium and the tricuspid annulus (Fig. 4). In 14 of the 78 patients, energy applied at each of two to four separate sites altered slow-pathway conduction substantially, as reflected by an increase in conduction time or a shift in the site of earliest atrial activation during retrograde slow-pathway conduction.
The selective effect on slow-pathway conduction of energy applied in the posteroseptal region is shown in Figure 3. Successful applications of current were often associated with attenuation or alteration of the ASP potential (Fig. 3B). Fast-pathway conduction was not significantly depressed in either the antegrade or the retrograde direction in these 78 patients (Table 1Table 1
Effects of Slow-Pathway Ablation on Fast Atrioventricular Nodal Pathway Conduction.*).Slow-pathway conduction was not ablated in two patients. In one patient no ASP potential was recorded, and applications of current at the ablation sites usually used were ineffective. Applying radiofrequency current to the anterior wall of the proximal coronary sinus selectively eliminated fast-pathway conduction and AVNRT. Antegrade slow-pathway conduction persisted. The other patient, one of the first studied, had preexisting left bundle-branch block. Inadvertent movement of the catheter to the region of the proximal right bundle branch during the application of radiofrequency current produced right bundle-branch block, causing complete atrioventricular block with the persistence of AVNRT. Radiofrequency current was then intentionally delivered over the atrioventricular node, eliminating the tachycardia. A dual-chamber pacemaker was implanted.
The elimination of AVNRT required a median of 2 (range, 1 to 33) applications of radiofrequency current. A median of only one application was required in the last 55 patients in the series. The successful applications of radiofrequency current were delivered for 45±25 seconds at 59±7 V, 0.63±0.10 A, and 37.1 ±9.8 W. The mean duration of the procedure was 8.0±2.6 hours (5.6±1.4 hours in the last 10 patients studied).
Follow-up
The 80 patients have been followed for a range of 1 to 40 months (mean, 15.5±11.3) without a recurrence of tachycardia in any patient. Follow-up electro-physiologic studies were performed in 32 patients (40 percent) 4.3±3.3 months after ablation. Programmed atrial and ventricular stimulation at base line and during isoproterenol administration failed to induce AVNRT in all 32 patients. Quantitative analysis of fast-pathway and slow-pathway conduction was available for the 22 patients who underwent follow-up studies at our institution. The characteristics of antegrade and retrograde conduction over the fast pathway were not significantly different from the preablation values (Table 1). Slow-pathway conduction was completely absent in 12 of the 22 patients. During decremental atrial pacing, 1:1 slow-pathway conduction was present in only two patients and was maintained only to pacing-cycle lengths of 380 and 420 msec. In the remaining eight patients, programmed atrial stimulation induced only single ventricular complexes conducted over the slow pathway.
Forty-eight patients did not undergo repeat electro-physiologic study, 27 of whom have been followed for more than six months. Of the 27 patients, 19 had weekly or monthly (13 and 6 patients, respectively) episodes of tachycardia before ablation.
Complications
Complications of the procedure occurred in five patients (6.3 percent). In one patient (1.3 percent), complete atrioventricular block developed as described above. The second patient had a small pulmonary embolus three days after ablation. Because of a previous pulmonary embolus, this patient received heparin during the procedure and for 24 hours thereafter. In three asymptomatic patients, thrombi were identified by transesophageal echocardiography: in the right atrial appendage in one, in the superior vena cava near the right atrial junction in another, and in the inferior vena cava near the right atrial junction in the third. The thrombi produced no overt clinical manifestations. Transesophageal echocardiography did not identify a thrombus at the site of ablation, a tricuspid-valve injury, or a pericardial effusion in any patient. There were no late complications.
Discussion
This report describes a new approach to the treatment of AVNRT in which radiofrequency energy is delivered through a catheter to the atrial insertion of the slow pathway in the posterior septum, remote from the atrioventricular node and the atrial insertion of the fast pathway. The fast pathway is the normal route of atrioventricular conduction in sinus rhythm. AVNRT was eliminated in all patients with a single procedure, without atrioventricular nodal block in any patient. Atrioventricular block within the His—Purkinje system occurred in one patient with preexisting left bundle-branch block after an inadvertent application of current to the proximal right bundle branch. The elimination of slow-pathway conduction had no effect on normal fast-pathway conduction. It is important to note that this approach was equally effective for the common (slow—fast) and uncommon (fast—slow) forms of AVNRT.
Other recently developed methods of eliminating AVNRT by catheter ablation, referred to as atrioventricular nodal modification, have directed the ablation to the retrograde fast pathway by positioning the ablation electrode at the site that recorded the earliest retrograde atrial potential. Slow—fast AVNRT was eliminated in 76 to 95 percent of the patients, but there was an 8 to 9.5 percent incidence of complete atrioventricular block.7 8 9 With refinement of this technique, slow—fast AVNRT was eliminated in 84 percent of patients in a single procedure and in 95 percent of patients in two sessions, with an incidence of heart block of 2.2 percent at the level of the atrioventricular node.10 Attempted ablation of fast-slow AVNRT in two patients was unsuccessful.10
Our observation that the ASP potential was always recorded at sites of successful slow-pathway ablation has practical and functional importance. In patients without retrograde slow-pathway conduction, the ASP potential recorded during sinus rhythm provided guidance to sites where slow-pathway ablation was successful. Several observations from this study suggest that the ASP potential may represent the activation of the atrial end of the slow pathway. First, the sequence of atrial and ASP potentials is reversed during antegrade (sinus-rhythm) and retrograde slow-pathway conduction; in the latter, the ASP potential precedes the retrograde atrial potential. Second, the retrograde ASP potential can be dissociated from the atrial potential. Finally, energy delivered at the sites from which the largest, sharpest ASP potential was recorded is associated with the successful ablation of slow-pathway conduction without alteration of fast-pathway conduction. The fibers generating the ASP potentials are unknown, but they may be located in the plane of connective tissue that separates the thin layer of right atrial myocardium between the coronary-sinus ostium and the tricuspid annulus from the underlying ventricular septum.
The sites of successful ablation of slow-pathway conduction were distributed over a wide area in the posteroseptal region. In addition, conduction over the slow pathway was affected by energy delivered at two to four separate sites in some patients, suggesting the presence either of multiple atrial insertions of the slow pathway or of multiple slow pathways.
It was not necessary to eliminate all slow-pathway conduction to eliminate AVNRT. In 51 patients, programmed atrial stimulation at the end of the procedure still induced single atrioventricular nodal reentrant atrial echo complexes, indicating that some slow-pathway conduction persisted. The absence of AVNRT in all patients over a mean follow-up period of 15.5 months and the inability to induce tachycardia in follow-up electrophysiologic studies performed in 40 percent of patients suggest that the procedure can be terminated successfully when the residual slow pathway cannot sustain 1:1 conduction during atrial or ventricular pacing and when only single echo complexes can be induced despite the administration of isoproterenol.
Complications occurred in only five patients (6.3 percent). One complication, atrioventricular block, resulted directly from the application of radiofrequency current. The other four complications, pulmonary embolus in one patient and thrombi in the right atrial appendage, the superior vena cava, and the inferior vena cava detected by transesophageal echocardiography in three asymptomatic patients, were probably related to the insertion and manipulation of the catheters. We currently treat all patients with aspirin for six weeks after ablation, but further study may indicate a role for short-term warfarin therapy.
The accepted concept regarding the mechanism of AVNRT has been that the reentrant circuit is confined entirely to the atrioventricular node. This hypothesis was supported by reports of AVNRT continuing undisturbed despite the dissociation of portions of right and left atrial myocardium close to the atrioventricular node as a result of atrial pacing, ventriculoatrial block, or atrial fibrillation.15 16 17 This model does not easily explain the observation by Sung et al.11 that the site of the earliest retrograde atrial activation differs in the case of retrograde conduction over the fast and slow pathways. The concept of a completely intranodal reentrant circuit was also challenged by the observations that surgical procedures have cured AVNRT by creating perinodal lesions to separate some of the atrial connections from the node.4 , 5 , 18 , 19 Our study provides strong evidence that the atrial insertions of the fast and slow pathways are anatomically distinct: the atrial insertion of the fast pathway is located anteriorly in the septum (close to the bundle of His), whereas the atrial insertion of the slow pathway is located posteriorly in the septum, often as much as 3 cm from the bundle of His. These observations should lead to a reconsideration of the possibility that a portion of atrial myocardium between the atrial insertions of the two pathways forms part of the reentrant circuit in AVNRT. One proposed model of such a circuit in slow—fast AVNRT is shown in Figure 5Figure 5
Schematic Representation of a Proposed Model of the Reentrant Circuit Used in the Common (Slow—Fast) Form of AVNRT..Selective catheter ablation of the atrial insertion of the slow pathway with radiofrequency current safely and reliably eliminates the common and uncommon forms of AVNRT without affecting normal atrioventricular nodal conduction. This procedure may prove to be the preferred initial therapy in patients with AVNRT.
Supported by a grant (R01-HL-39670) from the National Institutes of Health and a grant (HRC-RRP-A-028) from the Oklahoma Center for the Advancement of Science and Technology.
Dr. Jackman serves as a paid consultant to Webster Laboratories, the manufacturer of the catheters used for ablation in this study.
Source Information
From the Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, P.O. Box 26901, Rm. 5SP300, Oklahoma City, of 73190, where reprint requests should be addressed to Dr. Jackman.
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