Original Article
A Single Intravenous Infusion of Gamma Globulin as Compared with Four Infusions in the Treatment of Acute Kawasaki Syndrome
N Engl J Med 1991; 324:1633-1639June 6, 1991
- Abstract
- Abstract
Background.
Treatment of acute Kawasaki syndrome with a four-day course of intravenous gamma globulin, together with aspirin, has been demonstrated to be safe and effective in preventing coronary-artery lesions and reducing systemic inflammation. We hypothesized that therapy with a single, very high dose of gamma globulin would be at least as effective as the standard regimen.
Methods.
We conducted a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial involving 549 children with acute Kawasaki syndrome. The children were assigned to receive gamma globulin either as a single infusion of 2 g per kilogram of body weight over 10 hours or as daily infusions of 400 mg per kilogram for four consecutive days. Both treatment groups received aspirin (100 mg per kilogram per day through the 14th day of illness, then 3 to 5 mg per kilogram per day).
Results.
The relative prevalence of coronary abnormalities, adjusted for age and sex, among patients treated with the four-day regimen, as compared with those treated with the single-infusion regimen, was 1.94 (95 percent confidence limits, 1.01 and 3.71) two weeks after enrollment and 1.84 (95 percent confidence limits, 0.89 and 3.82) seven weeks after enrollment. Children treated with the single-infusion regimen had lower mean temperatures while hospitalized (day 2, P<0.001; day 3, P = 0.004), as well as a shorter mean duration of fever (P = 0.028). Furthermore, in the single-infusion group the laboratory indexes of acute inflammation moved more rapidly toward normal, including the adjusted serum albumin level (P = 0.004), alpha1-antitrypsin level (P = 0.007), and C-reactive protein level (P = 0.017). Lower IgG levels on day 4 were associated with a higher prevalence of coronary lesions (P = 0.005) and with a greater degree of systemic inflammation. The two groups had a similar incidence of adverse effects (including new or worsening congestive heart failure in nine children), which occurred in 2.7 percent of the children overall. All the adverse effects were transient.
Conclusions.
In children with acute Kawasaki disease, a single large dose of intravenous gamma globulin is more effective than the conventional regimen of four smaller daily doses and is equally safe. (N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1633–9.)
Media in This Article
Table 1
Demographic Data at Enrollment.Table 2
Laboratory Data at Enrollment.Article Activity
- Article
Kawasaki syndrome is an acute illness of childhood characterized by fever, rash, conjunctivitis, inflammation of the mucous membranes, swollen erythematous hands and feet, and cervical adenopathy.1 , 2 The histopathological features of vasculitis involving arterioles, capillaries, and venules appear in the earliest phase of the disease.3 Subsequently, the walls of the coronary arteries and other medium-sized muscular arteries may show evidence of focal segmental destruction, with coronary-artery aneurysms or ectasia developing in approximately 15 to 25 percent of affected children.4 5 6 Studies in Japan suggested that the intravenous administration of gamma globulin during the acute phase of Kawasaki syndrome decreased the prevalence of coronary-artery lesions.7 On the basis of these observations, we conducted a multicenter, randomized trial in the United States. Gamma globulin administered in four consecutive daily doses, together with aspirin, resulted in a marked reduction in the prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities as compared with aspirin alone.8 Furthermore, this treatment had a rapid and dramatic antiinflammatory effect. Motivated by the potential economic and social benefits of shortening the hospital stay for patients with Kawasaki syndrome, we organized a second multicenter, randomized trial to ascertain whether the administration of intravenous gamma globulin in a single large dose would have similar or better efficacy and safety than the standard regimen of four daily doses.
Methods
Enrollment of Patients
We enrolled patients from May 1986 through November 1989 at seven centers in the United States. We defined cases of Kawasaki syndrome according to the following criteria: fever; nonexudative conjunctival injection; changes in the oral pharynx, including mucosal erythema, dry, fissured lips, and "strawberry tongue"; changes in the extremities, characteristically erythema of the palms and soles, edema of the hands and feet, or periungual desquamation in the subacute phase of the disease; rash; and cervical adenopathy (one or more nodes at least 1.5 cm in diameter). The criteria for entry into the study required that patients have fever plus four of the other five signs and have no clinical or laboratory evidence of any other disease known to mimic Kawasaki syndrome. We also required that eligible patients be enrolled within 10 days of the onset of illness, with day 1 defined as the first day of fever. Patients could not have received treatment with gamma globulin before referral to the study center. Informed consent was obtained from the children's parents according to the guidelines of each clinical center.
Procedures
We randomly assigned participating patients to treatment groups, with stratification according to age (<1 year vs. ≥1 year), sex, and study center. The coordinating center developed randomization schemes for each age-and-sex group at each clinical center and supplied the centers with four sets of sealed, serially numbered, opaque envelopes that contained the patients' treatment assignments. Patients were assigned to receive intravenous gamma globulin (Immuno AG) as either one infusion per day, at a dose of 400 mg per kilogram of body weight per day administered over 2 hours, for four consecutive days, or a single infusion at a dose of 2 g per kilogram, given over approximately 10 hours (range, 8 to 12 hours). A gamma globulin dose of 2 g per kilogram was chosen for the single-infusion regimen so that the serum IgG level on day 4 of treatment would be approximately the same as that produced by the four-day regimen. All patients also received aspirin at a dose of 100 mg per kilogram per day (range of doses actually received, 80 to 100 mg per kilogram per day), given in divided doses every six hours through day 14 of the illness, then 3 to 5 mg per kilogram per day as a single daily dose. All adverse reactions were noted. In children without echocardiographic evidence of coronary-artery abnormalities, aspirin therapy was discontinued approximately seven weeks after enrollment.
Laboratory testing was performed at the time of enrollment and then approximately four days (range, three to nine), two weeks (range, one to three), and seven weeks (range, five to nine) after enrollment. At each visit, blood samples were obtained for a complete blood count, differential white-cell count, platelet count, and measurements of IgG, alpha1-antitrypsin, albumin, and C-reactive protein. We also measured serum salicylate levels on day 4 after enrollment.
Although the study protocol called for four days of hospitalization for patients treated with either gamma globulin regimen, 6 percent of the 273 patients in the single-infusion group and 1 percent of the 276 patients in the four-infusion group were discharged early; a majority of early discharges occurred on the third day of treatment (i.e., one day early). A total of five patients (1.8 percent) in the single-infusion group and eight patients (2.8 percent) in the four-infusion group received further intravenous infusions of gamma globulin because of recrudescent or persistent fever, a mean of 9 days after enrollment (range, 4 to 15) at a mean dose of 1.25 g of gamma globulin per kilogram (range, 400 mg to 2 g per kilogram); the dose of gamma globulin in these further infusions was unrelated to the initial regimen. Minor deviations in the protocol for gamma globulin administration occurred in the cases of four patients (two in each treatment group). None of these patients were excluded from the analyses.
Echocardiography
We assessed the presence of coronary-artery abnormalities by two-dimensional echocardiography, performed at enrollment and at the two-week and seven-week visits. Each study included views of the right coronary artery and of the left main, anterior descending, and circumflex branches of the left coronary artery, as well as of the posterior descending coronary artery. Each patient's echocardiograms were recorded on a single videotape in chronologic order and were interpreted blindly and independently by two pediatric echocardiographers. A third echocardiographer resolved disagreements about the status of the coronary arteries (such adjudication was required for 3.4 percent of the studies). Echocardiographers interpreted the studies according to a uniform, predetermined protocol. Each coronary artery was categorized as nonvisualized, normal, or abnormal (showing ectasia or aneurysm). We recorded the maximal dimension of each abnormal segment. A coronary artery was defined as abnormal if the lumen diameter (inside to inside) was at least 3 mm in a child less than five years of age or at least 4 mm in a child five years of age or older; if the internal diameter of a segment was at least 1.5 times as large as that of an adjacent segment; or if the lumen was clearly irregular.9
Statistical Analysis
The primary outcome variables for this trial were the presence or absence of coronary-artery abnormalities evident at the two-week and seven-week follow-up evaluations; the maximal temperature on study day 3, which was the last full day of hospitalization required by the protocol; laboratory indexes of systemic inflammation: the white-cell count, alpha1-antitrypsin level, and serum albumin level on study day 4; and the serum IgG level on study day 4. The duration of the trial was intended to allow at least 350 patients to be enrolled. This sample size would ensure a power of at least 80 percent to detect clinically meaningful differences in the temperature and laboratory variables between the groups with use of a 1 percent level of significance. We did not anticipate that any differences in the rates of coronary-artery abnormalities between the groups would be large enough to detect in a study with this sample size.
We compared mean values for base-line (day 1) demographic, temperature, and laboratory data and the duration of fever with two-sample t-tests. All P values are two-tailed. We used a natural logarithmic transformation (In) of the C-reactive protein level to normalize its distribution before analysis. We used chi-square tests to compare the crude prevalence of coronary lesions at two and seven weeks and for comparisons of other categorical variables. Relative prevalences adjusted for age and sex were estimated with the MantelHaenszel method for stratified data.10 We used logistic regression to investigate possible confounders of the relation between the treatment regimen and the presence of coronary-artery abnormalities. After confirming that the relations were linear, we used analysis of covariance to compare post-treatment mean temperatures and laboratory values after adjustment for base-line values.
We investigated the relation between the post-treatment serum IgG level, adjusted for base-line level, and the development of coronary-artery abnormalities and laboratory indexes by means of logistic and linear regression, respectively. To eliminate the effects of potential confounding by age in these analyses, we transformed the serum IgG level with use of z scores (standard-deviation units) based on age-specific standard values for normal patients.
Results
Comparability of Treatment Groups
Of 574 eligible children, 549 (96.0 percent) were enrolled in the study; 276 were assigned to the four-infusion group and 273 to the single-infusion group. The families of the remaining 25 children declined to participate. At enrollment, the patients in the two treatment groups had similar demographic characteristics (Table 1Table 1
Demographic Data at Enrollment.) and laboratory data (Table 2Table 2Laboratory Data at Enrollment.). Echocardiograms were obtained for 523 children (95.3 percent) at the two-week visit and for 520 children (94.7 percent) at the seven-week visit. The proportion of children for whom echocardiograms were not obtained was similar in the four-infusion and single-infusion groups at two weeks (4.7 percent and 4.8 percent, respectively) and at seven weeks (4.7 percent and 6.2 percent). Neither the two-week nor the seven-week echocardiographic evaluation was available for six children.At enrollment, 17 children ( 11 in the four-infusion group and 6 in the single-infusion group) had abnormalities in one or more coronary arteries. Of these 17, 13 (76.5 percent) were boys, 6 of whom were less than one year of age. Their mean duration of illness (±SE) at enrollment was 7.3±0.5 days, as compared with 6.4±0.1 days for those who had no abnormalities at enrollment (P = 0.050). Among the 11 patients treated with the conventional four-day regimen, the luminal diameter of the segments with coronary lesions returned to normal in 2 patients (18.2 percent) by the seven-week echocardiogram, as compared with 2 of the 6 patients (33.3 percent) in the single-infusion group. There were too few children with abnormal echocardiograms at enrollment to allow us to assess the effect of gamma globulin therapy on the course of their abnormalities.
Coronary-Artery Abnormalities
We compared the prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities in the two treatment groups both two and seven weeks after enrollment (Table 3Table 3
Children with Evidence of Coronary-Artery Abnormalities on Echocardiography at Two and Seven Weeks, According to Treatment Group and age–sex Group.). At the two-week visit, we detected lesions in 24 of 263 children (9.1 percent) in the four-infusion group, as compared with 12 of 260 children (4.6 percent) in the single-infusion group (P = 0.042 by chi-square test). At the seven-week visit, 19 of 263 children (7.2 percent) in the four-infusion group and 10 of 257 children (3.9 percent) in the single-infusion group had abnormalities (P = 0.098). When children whose enrollment echocardiograms indicated coronary-artery abnormalities were excluded, we detected lesions in 14 of 252 children (5.6 percent) in the four-infusion group and 6 of 254 children (2.4 percent) in the single-infusion group at the two-week visit (P = 0.065). At seven weeks, these figures were 10 of 252 (4.0 percent) and 6 of 251 (2.4 percent) (P = 0.313).We estimated the relative prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities in the two groups (the prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities in the four-infusion group divided by that in the single-infusion group), adjusting for age and sex. Two weeks after enrollment, the adjusted relative prevalence was 1.94 (95 percent confidence limits, 1.01 and 3.71); thus, children treated with the standard four-day regimen were almost twice as likely to have coronary-artery abnormalities as those in the single-infusion group. At the seven-week visit, the adjusted relative prevalence was 1.84 (95 percent confidence limits, 0.89 and 3.82). The exclusion of children who had coronary-artery abnormalities at enrollment resulted in an adjusted relative prevalence of 2.33 (95 percent confidence limits, 0.94 and 5.76) at two weeks and 1.67 (95 percent confidence limits, 0.63 and 4.45) at seven weeks. We found no significant differences in relative prevalence among the four age–sex strata (by the Breslow—Day test for homogeneity).11
Using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression, we investigated the effect of treatment on the prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities, controlling for such potential confounders as base-line demographic characteristics, temperature, laboratory data, and duration of illness at enrollment. The estimated adjusted relative prevalence was consistent among all models and did not differ from the estimate obtained by the MantelHaenszel method. The prevalence of echocardiographically identified abnormalities at two or seven weeks among children treated with the four-day regimen in the current trial was similar to that observed among comparably treated children in our previous trial.8
We compared the children who had coronary-artery abnormalities in the two treatment groups with respect to the maximal luminal diameter observed in any arterial segment on the two-week or seven-week echocardiogram. The majority of children (71 percent in the four-infusion group and 77 percent in the single-infusion group) had a maximal luminal diameter of less than 6 mm. Four of the five children with giant aneurysms were treated with the four-day regimen; one of these children died during the subacute phase of the disease. Coronary-artery abnormalities were detected at the time of enrollment in only two of the children with giant aneurysms (one child in each treatment group).
Fever and Laboratory Indexes
To determine the effect of the gamma globulin regimen on fever, we analyzed the maximal temperature measured in the hospital during the first three study days, as well as the total duration of fever after enrollment. Fever was defined as a rectal or oral temperature of at least 38.0°C. The maximal temperatures on study days 2 and 3, adjusted for base-line temperature, were significantly higher among the children treated with the four-day regimen than among those in the single-infusion group (P<0.001 and P = 0.004, respectively). The average duration of fever after the initiation of therapy (±SE) was 2.13±0.13 days in the four-infusion group and 1.72±0.13 days in the single-infusion group (P = 0.028). Eighty-one of the 276 children (29.3 percent) in the four-infusion group were febrile for at least three days after the initiation of treatment, as compared with 52 of the 273 children (19.1 percent) in the single-infusion group (P = 0.005). Thus, children treated with the single-infusion regimen had faster resolution of fever and a shorter duration of fever after the beginning of therapy than did those treated with the standard regimen.
Similarly, children treated with the single-infusion regimen had more rapid resolution of inflammation (Table 4Table 4
Laboratory Data on Study Day 4 and after Two Weeks, According to Treatment Group.). On study day 4, the children in the single-infusion group had a significantly higher mean serum albumin level, adjusted for the base-line value, than those in the four-infusion group (P = 0.002). Mean salicylate levels and other laboratory indexes did not differ significantly between the groups at this time. At the two-week evaluation, children treated with the single-infusion regimen had a higher mean adjusted serum albumin level (P = 0.004), a lower mean adjusted alpha1-antitrypsin level (P = 0.007), and a lower mean adjusted In C-reactive protein level (P = 0.017) than those treated with the four-infusion regimen. There were no significant differences between the treatment groups in mean laboratory values at the seven-week visit.Relation of Gamma Globulin Levels to Outcome
We investigated the relation of age-adjusted serum IgG levels to the development of coronary-artery lesions and the systemic inflammatory response. The mean serum concentration of IgG at enrollment was significantly lower among the children than the expected value for age (P<0.001). Analyses of post-treatment IgG levels were performed separately in the two groups, and all post-treatment serum IgG levels were adjusted for the base-line level as well as for age (Table 5Table 5
Relation of Age-Adjusted IgG Level (z Score) to Coronary-Artery (CA) Outcome, According to Treatment Group.*). The 17 children who had coronary abnormalities at enrollment were excluded from these analyses.Among the patients treated with the four-infusion regimen, the adjusted serum IgG level on day 4 was a strong predictor of outcome; patients with lower concentrations had a higher prevalence of coronary lesions (P = 0.020), a higher maximal temperature on day 3 (P<0.001), a longer duration of fever (P = 0.003), and a greater degree of systemic inflammation, as reflected in the results of laboratory tests, including the serum albumin level on day 4 (P = 0.001) and at week 2 (P<0.001), the In C-reactive protein level on day 4 (P<0.001) and at week 2 (P<0.001), and the alpha1-antitrypsin level at week 2 (P = 0.014). In contrast, within the single-infusion group, the adjusted serum IgG level on day 4 was not significantly related to any measure of the severity of illness. Within both treatment groups, children with coronary abnormalities had higher adjusted serum IgG levels at week 2 and week 7, presumably as a result of continued polyclonal B-cell activation (Table 5).
Adverse Effects
Adverse side effects were observed in 2.7 percent of the children in the two treatment groups combined. Nine children (three in the four-infusion group and six in the single-infusion group) had new or worsening congestive heart failure. Only one of these children, in the four-infusion group, required treatment with pressor agents. Of the remaining eight children, five responded to a single dose of furosemide and three were given no anticongestive therapy. Two children (0.4 percent of all study subjects), both in the four-infusion group, had pruritus. One child, in whom the single infusion was administered by pump, had an unrecognized infiltration of his intravenous line early in the course of the infusion, with consequent subcutaneous infusion of intravenous gamma globulin, producing massive edema of the leg and blistering of the skin. Three patients had other complications; two patients (one in each treatment group) had generalized edema without congestive heart failure, and one (in the single-infusion group) had nasal congestion, cough, and nausea of acute onset early in the course of the infusion but tolerated the remainder of the infusion without difficulty after treatment with diphenhydramine.
Discussion
In this study a single infusion of intravenous gamma globulin was more effective than the standard four-day regimen for the treatment of acute Kawasaki syndrome. The single-infusion regimen accelerated the resolution of systemic inflammation and tended to lower the prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities. The frequency of adverse effects was similar in the two treatment groups.
The results of previous studies, in which various doses of intravenous gamma globulin were used, suggest that a total dose below 1 g per kilogram is ineffective.12 , 13 Recently, investigators in the United States have reported the use of a single infusion of 1 g of intravenous gamma globulin per kilogram; the efficacy of this regimen, as compared with that of four daily doses of 400 mg per kilogram, in preventing coronary lesions has not been conclusively demonstrated because the studies either have been uncontrolled14 or have included too few patients for sufficient statistical power.15 A Japanese multicenter, controlled trial compared the outcome in 84 children with acute Kawasaki syndrome who were randomly assigned to treatment with either intravenous gamma globulin (1 g per kilogram) and aspirin or aspirin alone; no difference in the prevalence of coronary lesions was found between the groups.13 Furthermore, in a randomized, controlled study in Japan of 105 children with Kawasaki syndrome who were believed to be at high risk for coronary-artery abnormalities, the severity of coronary-artery lesions was greater among those who received intravenous gamma globulin at a dose of 1 g per kilogram than among those who received 2 g per kilogram.16
In comparison with the conventional four-day regimen, the single infusion of 2 g per kilogram delivers a larger total dose of gamma globulin earlier in the course of the disease and should result in higher peak serum IgG levels. This study could not determine whether the presumably higher peak IgG level among the children treated with the single infusion or the earlier attainment of this level contributed more to the superior efficacy of the single-infusion regimen. The first post-treatment measurement of the IgG level was made on study day 4; thus, peak serum IgG concentrations were recorded only for children assigned to the four-infusion group. Among these children, the peak serum IgG level, adjusted for the base-line value and for age, was lower in patients who subsequently had coronary-artery abnormalities and was inversely
related to the duration of fever and to laboratory indexes of acute inflammation. The reasons for this relation are unclear. However, the association of lower peak IgG levels with worse outcome suggests the possibility of a relation between serum IgG concentration and therapeutic effectiveness.
The reason for the efficacy of gamma globulin treatment in Kawasaki syndrome is unknown. The successful treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura with gamma globulin appears to result from the blockade of Fcγ receptors17; intravenous gamma globulin has also been shown to act as a sump for activated complement components in Forssman shock.18 It appears unlikely that either of these mechanisms is important in Kawasaki syndrome. The rapidity of the effect of gamma globulin in children with Kawasaki syndrome makes it doubtful that the gamma globulin is neutralizing a microorganism. Treatment of acute Kawasaki syndrome with gamma globulin results in the rapid down-regulation of the immune response.19 This effect may be due to the neutralization by gamma globulin of a microbial toxin, which acts as a superantigen that binds nonspecifically to Class II major histocompatibility molecules20 or to certain variable beta regions of the T-cell–antigen receptor.21 Alternatively, the binding of gamma globulin dimers present in the gamma globulin to low-affinity Fcγ receptors may result in the down-regulation of the secretion of cytokines that incite inflammation or in the secretion of cytokines that down-regulate inflammatory responses.
It was not possible to measure directly the number of hospital days that could be saved by using the single-infusion regimen, since the patients in the two treatment groups were required by protocol to remain in the hospital until at least the fourth study day. However, the use of this regimen would be expected to shorten the mean length of the hospital stay,15 resulting in substantial financial savings and psychosocial benefits.
The prognosis for coronary lesions in Kawasaki syndrome is closely related to the initial maximal diameter of the vessel lumen.22 23 24 The highest coronary morbidity and mortality from Kawasaki syndrome occur in patients with so-called giant coronary-artery aneurysms, defined as those with an internal diameter of at least 8 mm.23 , 25 , 26 Giant aneurysms were not observed in our series among patients treated with the single-infusion regimen whose enrollment echocardiograms were normal, a finding that suggests that the incidence of this serious complication of Kawasaki syndrome must be very low when the single-infusion regimen is used. The majority of the coronary abnormalities among the children in the single-infusion group were mild to moderate in severity.22 , 23 Vessels with limited enlargement tend to regress to the normal luminal diameter by myointimal proliferation; such vascular segments may appear normal angiographically, but they have abnormal histologic features3 , 27 28 29 and reactivity.30 31 32 Vascular segments that have been at least moderately dilated may have persistent aneurysmal morphologic features, may develop stenosis or occlusion, or may be abnormally tortuous.4 , 6 , 24 Long-term surveillance of patients with such lesions will be necessary to elucidate the natural history of Kawasaki syndrome over decades.
We conclude that a single dose of 2 g of intravenous gamma globulin per kilogram, with aspirin, is more effective in treating Kawasaki syndrome than the conventional regimen of four smaller daily doses with aspirin. This finding, together with the association of lower post-treatment serum IgG concentrations with a subsequent higher prevalence of coronary-artery abnormalities and with a greater degree of systemic inflammation, supports the concept of a relation between the gamma globulin dose and the response. Until basic research leads to a more specific form of therapy, we recommend that a single dose of 2 g of intravenous gamma globulin per kilogram replace the conventional four-day regimen in the initial treatment of acute Kawasaki syndrome. Future studies should explore the usefulness of an increased dose or repeated infusions of gamma globulin for selected patients at high risk for coronary-artery abnormalities.
Supported by grants (HL 34545, RR 02172, and RR 69) from the National Institutes of Health.
We are indebted to the members of the Safety and Policy Monitoring Committee, Mary Jane Jesse, M.D. (chairperson), Kathryn D. Davis, Ph.D., Samuel W. Greenhouse, Ph.D., Martha Lepow, M.D., Laurence McCullough, Ph.D., and Roberta G. Williams, M.D.; to Alan B. Lewis and Samuel Gidding for their assistance with the blinded echocardiogram interpretations; to Harvey R. Meyerson for computer programming; to the center study nurses, Catherine L. Brosius, R.N., M.S., Marilyn McEnhill, R.N., M.S.N., Kathleen Corydon, R.N., B.S.N., Rose L.B. Brogden, B.S., M.(A.S.C.P.), Donna Ching, Sharon Uyeno, M.P.H., Trina Schneider, R.N., Roberta Rhem, R.N., M.S.N., and Maureen Castellana, R.N., for local acquisition of data and coordination of the protocol; to Donna Donati, Donna Duva, Julie P. Buck, and Lisa-Jean Buckley for data management; and to Kathleen M. O'Brien for general study coordination.
Source Information
From the Departments of Cardiology and Medicine, Children's Hospital, and the Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston (J.W.N., S.D.C., R.P.S., F.S.R.); the Department of Pediatrics, Children's Memorial Hospital and Northwestern University School of Medicine, Chicago (C.E.D., A.H.R., S.T.S.); Children's Hospital, the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, and the University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver (M.P.G., J.W.W.); Children's Hospital of Los Angeles and the University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles (W.H.M., M.T.); Children's Hospital, the University of California Medical Center, and the University of California School of Medicine, San Diego (J.C.B., J.B., K.J.C.); Tufts—New England Medical Center and Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston (D.R.F., H.C.M.); Kapiolani—Children's Medical Center and John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu (M.E.M., V.R.); and the Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston (A.S.B., T.C.). Address reprint requests to Dr. Newburger at the Department of Cardiology, Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Ave., Boston, MA 02115.
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- Citing Articles (234)
Citing Articles
1
Hirohisa Kato, Kenji Suda. 2012. Kawasaki Disease. , 919-937.
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Ho-Chang Kuo, Kuender D. Yang, Wei-Chiao Chang, Luo-Ping Ger, Kai-Sheng Hsieh. (2012) Kawasaki Disease: An Update on Diagnosis and Treatment. Pediatrics & Neonatology
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Kyung-Yil Lee, Jung-Woo Rhim, Jin-Han Kang. (2012) Kawasaki Disease: Laboratory Findings and an Immunopathogenesis on the Premise of a "Protein Homeostasis System". Yonsei Medical Journal 53:2, 262
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U. Neudorf. (2011) Kawasaki-Erkrankung bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Zeitschrift für Rheumatologie 70:10, 838-843
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