Original Article
Regression of Coronary Artery Disease as a Result of Intensive Lipid-Lowering Therapy in Men with High Levels of Apolipoprotein B
N Engl J Med 1990; 323:1289-1298November 8, 1990
- Abstract
- Abstract
Background and Methods.
The effect of intensive lipid-lowering therapy on coronary atherosclerosis among men at high risk for cardiovascular events was assessed by quantitative arteriography. Of 146 men no more than 62 years of age who had apolipoprotein B levels ≥125 mg per deciliter, documented coronary artery disease, and a family history of vascular disease, 120 completed the 2 1/2-year double-blind study, which included arteriography at base line and after treatment. Patients were given dietary counseling and were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: lovastatin (20 mg twice a day) and colestipol (10 g three times a day); niacin (1 g four times a day) and colestipol (10 g three times a day); or conventional therapy with placebo (or colestipol if the low-density lipoprotein [LDL] cholesterol level was elevated).
Results.
The levels of LDL and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol changed only slightly in the conventional-therapy group (mean changes, −7 and +5 percent, respectively), but more substantially among patients treated with lovastatin and colestipol (−46 and +15 percent) or niacin and colestipol (−32 and +43 percent). In the conventional-therapy group, 46 percent of the patients had definite lesion progression (and no regression) in at least one of nine proximal coronary segments; regression was the only change in 11 percent. By comparison, progression (as the only change) was less frequent among patients who received lovastatin and colestipol (21 percent) and those who received niacin and colestipol (25 percent), and regression was more frequent (lovastatin and colestipol, 32 percent; niacin and colestipol, 39 percent; P<0.005). Multivariate analysis indicated that a reduction in the level of apolipoprotein B (or LDL cholesterol) and in systolic blood pressure, and an increase in HDL cholesterol correlated independently with regression of coronary lesions. Clinical events (death, myocardial infarction, or revascularization for worsening symptoms) occurred in 10 of 52 patients assigned to conventional therapy, as compared with 3 of 46 assigned to receive lovastatin and colestipol and 2 of 48 assigned to receive niacin and colestipol (relative risk of an event during intensive treatment, 0.27; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.10 to 0.77).
Conclusions.
In men with coronary artery disease who were at high risk for cardiovascular events, intensive lipid-lowering therapy reduced the frequency of progression of coronary lesions, increased the frequency of regression, and reduced the incidence of cardiovascular events. (N Engl J Med 1990; 323:1289–98.)
Article Activity
- Article
FOR several decades, clinical trials have addressed the question of whether treatment of hyperlipidemia reduces the associated risk of cardiovascular events.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 A substantial body of evidence now supports the idea that cardiovascular benefits are related to the degree of reduction in the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol level2 and possibly to the degree of increase in the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level.3 , 4 , 6 , 9 , 12 , 14 In these trials, however, changes in lipid levels have usually been small, and the overall clinical benefits have been limited; thus, the interpretation of the study results has been the subject of controversy.15 , 16
A related question is whether the progression of atherosclerosis can be retarded or reversed by such treatment. The appearance in the 1980s of more effective therapies for hyperlipidemia,17 , 18 new arteriographic methods for assessing atherosclerosis,19 20 21 22 and new insights into atherogenesis23 24 25 26 27 has permitted an objective investigation of this question. In this report, we describe the results of the Familial Atherosclerosis Treatment Study (FATS), a six-year study28 comparing two intensive strategies for the modification of lipid levels with a more conventional approach in men at particularly high risk for cardiovascular events as a result of established coronary atherosclerosis. The primary end point in our study was a measure of change in the severity of disease in the proximal coronary arteries, as assessed by quantitative arteriography.
Methods
Patients
One hundred forty-six men, 62 years of age or younger, with elevated apolipoprotein B levels and a family history of coronary artery disease, were randomly assigned to one of three therapeutic strategies. All patients had evidence of coronary atherosclerosis on a base-line arteriogram, with at least one lesion occluding 50 percent or more of the diameter of the artery (50 percent stenosis) or three lesions causing at least 30 percent stenosis. A family history of coronary artery disease was taken to suggest heritable risk if an early cardiovascular event (angina, myocardial infarction, sudden death, stroke, or claudication occurring before the age of 56 in men or before the age of 70 in women) had taken place in at least 20 percent of the first-degree relatives of the patient's mother or father who had reached middle age (defined for this purpose as 45 years of age for men and 55 for women).
Fasting lipid samples were drawn before heparinization from all men undergoing coronary arteriography in our laboratories, and patients were interviewed about their clinical and family histories. The level of apolipoprotein B was considered elevated if it exceeded 125 mg per deciliter, approximately the 88th percentile for a 47-year-old man.29 Between January 1984 and February 1987, 364 men, eligible in terms of age, apolipoprotein B levels, and family history, were contacted about this trial. Revascularization had already been performed or was scheduled for 88 of the men. Another 44 were ineligible because they had diabetes, severe hypertension, cancer, or liver, thyroid, or kidney disease. Another 86 were eligible, but they or their physicians declined participation. Thus, 232 (64 percent of those initially contacted) were eligible; of these, 146 (63 percent) were enrolled in the study.
Informed Consent
Each patient and his physician were mailed a description of the study, which stipulated that each was to be blinded to the patient's treatment assignment and changes in lipid levels and that, together, they would make all clinical decisions regarding the patient's care. The agreement of the physician was necessary for the patient's participation. At the initial visit, the patient read, discussed, and signed a consent form approved by the institutional review board.
Dietary Counseling
A dietitian, blinded to the patient's treatment group, counseled each patient for 20 minutes at each visit. Dietary goals, which were the same for each group, were keyed to the American Heart Association's target levels I and II.30 Three-day food records, completed before counseling and after 12 months of treatment, were coded and analyzed for calorie, cholesterol, and fat intake.31
Randomization
For purposes of random assignment, the subjects were stratified for age below 45 years, cigarette smoking within the previous month, and three lipid patterns (familial hypercholesterolemia, diagnosed by family history, LDL cholesterol level ≥6.5 mmol per liter [250 mg per deciliter], and tendon xanthoma [n = 14]; the rest were classified according to triglyceride level: 73 with less than 2.3 mmol per liter [200 mg per deciliter], and 59 with more than 2.3 mmol per liter). The men were randomly assigned to treatment groups; the study was double blinded and placebo controlled, and treatment began at the first clinic visit. The three strategies were treatment with niacin and colestipol, treatment with lovastatin and colestipol, and conventional therapy.
Niacin—Colestipol Group
Colestipol was begun at a dose of 5 g three times a day with meals and increased to 10 g three times a day after 10 days, unless side effects delayed the increase. Psyllium hydrophic mucilloid (Metamucil) was provided if dietary bran was insufficient to control constipation. Niacin was started at 125 mg twice a day and gradually increased to 500 mg four times a day (with meals and at bedtime) at one month and 1 g four times a day at two months. If the LDL cholesterol level did not fall below 3.1 mmol per liter (120 mg per deciliter) after three months, the dose of niacin was increased to 1.5 g (three tablets) four times a day, but no further.
Lovastatin—Colestipol Group
Colestipol was given as described above. Lovastatin was begun at a dose of 20 mg twice a day (in the morning and at bedtime). If the LDL cholesterol level did not fall below 3.1 mmol per liter after three months, the dose of lovastatin was increased to 40 mg twice a day.
Conventional-Therapy Group
Patients assigned to conventional therapy (the control regimen) received placebos for colestipol and for lovastatin, given as described above, unless their base-line LDL cholesterol level exceeded the 90th percentile for age. We felt obliged to provide such patients (43 percent of the group) with colestipol instead of its placebo.2 , 7 For purposes of blinding, the lovastatin placebo dose for a patient assigned to conventional therapy was doubled each time the lovastatin dose was doubled for a patient assigned to receive lovastatin and colestipol.
Clinic Visits and Laboratory Tests
Patients visited the Northwest Lipid Research Clinic monthly for 1 year and every other month for the rest of the 2 1/2-year study. At each visit, unused study drugs were returned and counted, new supplies of drugs and dietary counseling were provided, blood was sampled, and a directed interview and examination were performed.
Plasma very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), LDL, and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and apolipoprotein B were measured32 , 33 at base line and quarterly at the Lipid Research Clinic laboratory. At base line, at one and two years during therapy, and six weeks after the end of therapy, a more detailed analysis was performed; it included measurements of the fraction of apolipoprotein B with density >1.006,33 the HDL2 and HDL3 fractions of HDL cholesterol,34 , 35 apolipoproteins A-I and A-II,36 apolipoprotein E isoforms,37 and Lp(a) lipoprotein.38
At entry and every six months throughout the study, the hematocrit, creatinine, uric acid, glucose, bilirubin, serum aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase were measured and a leukocyte count was performed to detect possible adverse side effects; liver-function tests were also performed at one, two, and three months.
Exercise Testing
Bruce protocol exercise-tolerance testing39 was performed at the time of study entry. The duration of exercise, hemodynamic response, symptoms, and ST—T changes were recorded in a standard fashion.
Arteriography
At the base-line catheterization, five views of the left coronary artery and two of the right were obtained. These views gave at least one clear look at each coronary segment, and they formed four pairs of perpendicular views suitable for biplane quantitative analysis.19 The use of nitrates and other vasoactive drugs, and the sequence of arteriographic projections, x-ray field, and catheter size were recorded; these conditions were duplicated as exactly as possible in the follow-up study 30 months later.
Change in the severity of coronary disease was assessed both visually and quantitatively. In both assessments, two experienced observers were blinded to the patient's identity and treatment group and to the sequence of films. Each of the two films, obtained 2 1/2 years apart, had its leader cut off and was labeled only with a study code. The pairs of films were viewed simultaneously side by side, at fivefold magnification, in a dual overhead-projector system (Vanguard Instrument, Melville, N.Y.). A reference frame was marked so that specific frames could be located. A detailed coronary map was drawn, locating each lesion causing stenosis of at least 20 percent.
Visual Assessment
Two cine frames taken at the same point in the cardiac cycle were selected as good-quality, representative images of each lesion; whenever possible, two frames were chosen from each of two perpendicular views of the lesion. On the basis of direct visual comparison, lesions were classified by consensus as "unchanged," "definitely changed," or "possibly changed." For "possibly changed" lesions, a third frame was selected for each view from each film. The lesion causing the worst stenosis in each of the nine proximal segments (Fig. 1Figure 1
Location of Nine Standard Proximal Segments of the Coronary Anatomy.) was designated the proximal lesion for that segment. If no lesions could be identified in a given proximal segment, a length of "normal" vessel was measured. Other, less severe lesions in these nine segments and lesions in the more distal branches were also measured. Lesions at the catheter tip were excluded from analysis.Quantitative Assessment
The borders of each lesion and the catheter were manually traced from the selected frames onto a standard form. For lesions classified as unchanged or definitely changed, the two selected frames were traced for each view. For "possibly changed" lesions, three frames were traced for each view, each by two technicians. All tracings were reviewed for accuracy by an experienced technician and were then digitized and processed with use of techniques developed and validated in our laboratory.19 , 22 , 28 , 40 The diameter of the lumen at the point of greatest local narrowing (minimum diameter, or DM), and nearby normal diameters (DN) were measured, in millimeters, with the catheter used as a scaling factor. The two principal measures of disease were DM and the percent stenosis (%S = 100[1 - DM/DN]). Each estimate was an average of the estimates for the tracings measured, which averaged 3.1 per film (range, 2 to 12).
Statistical Analysis
Group differences in base-line risk factors were compared by one-way analysis of variance41 for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables.
The primary end point was the average change between the two studies in the percent stenosis for the worst lesion in each of the nine proximal segments. A single estimate of the mean change in proximal stenosis (Δ%Sprox) was made for each patient (in Figure 1, Δ%Sprox = 4 percent). An equally important primary-end-point variable was a similarly averaged change in the minimum diameter of the lumen (ΔDMprox). Secondary-end-point analyses compared the average changes in all lesions measured in each patient and in the proximal lesions causing at least 50 percent stenosis or less than 50 percent stenosis at base line. Differences among the three treatment groups in the mean value of these disease-change variables were compared by analysis of variance; when the changes were not normally distributed, Kruskal—Wallis analysis of variance was used.41
Group differences in the proportion of patients who had clinical events during the 2 1/2 years of the study were compared by Fisher's exact test.42 A difference was considered statistically significant if the two-sided probability of the observed result under the null hypothesis was ≤0.05.
Variables that were associated with a change in the mean severity of proximal lesions were identified by means of stepwise multiple linear regression.41 As a first step, we determined the univariate correlations between each of 49 potential risk variables and the mean change in the severity of proximal stenosis (Δ%Sprox, Fig. 1). These 49 variables included all lipid, lipoprotein, and apoprotein levels and chemical measures listed above, as well as base-line findings on treadmill exercise testing and conventional risk factors (Tables 1Table 1
Base-Line Risk Factors among Patients Who Did and Did Not Complete the Study. through 3Table 3
Lipid and Lipoprotein Levels before, during, and after Therapy, According to Treatment Group.). The percent change in a given variable from the mean base-line value to the mean value during therapy was virtually always slightly to significantly better correlated with Δ%Sprox than was its mean value during treatment. For example, among the 120 patients who completed the study, Δ%Sprox correlated with the percent change in the apolipoprotein B level slightly better than it did with the apolipoprotein B level during therapy (r = 0.38 vs. 0.33, P not significant) and significantly better with the percent change in the level of HDL cholesterol than with the HDL cholesterol level during therapy (r = -0.33 vs. -0.19, P = 0.05). Therefore, we decided to use the percent change in values rather than the values during treatment as the independent variables in the statistical model. The multivariate statistical model for estimating the mean change in proximal stenosis was built in steps.41 All variables for which r>0.18 (P = 0.05) were allowed to compete. The variable most strongly correlated with Δ%Sprox was selected first; each subsequent variable was selected because it added more predictive information (incremental r2) than any of the remaining variables not yet in the model. Selection ended when none of the remaining variables added significantly to the sum of r2.Results
Base-Line Characteristics
One hundred twenty patients completed the 32-month protocol; 1 died, and 25 (6 in the conventional-therapy group, 7 in the lovastatin—colestipol group, and 12 in the niacin—colestipol group) dropped out after a mean (±SD) of 9±7 months. Reasons for withdrawal included loss of interest (eight patients), a decision not to undergo the final catheterization (two), a long-distance move or time conflict (three), intolerance of niacin (five), and intolerance of colestipol (four). One in each group opted for an alternative therapy despite having stable symptoms. There were no statistically significant differences in baseline risk factors among the three treatment groups and the group of patients who did not complete the study (Tables 1 , 2Table 2
Drug Compliance and Changes in Dietary Factors, Weight, and Blood Pressure among Patients in the Three Treatment Groups. , and 3). Forty-three percent had had a previous myocardial infarction, 79 percent had smoked, 24 percent were current smokers, 67 percent had angina at entry, and 35 percent had a history of hypertension or were currently being treated for hypertension.Drug Compliance and Dietary Changes
As shown in Table 2, approximately 88 percent of the prescribed number of pills was taken, as were the drugs in 83 percent of the packets. As compared with their base-line values, those assigned to conventional therapy or to lovastatin and colestipol, but not those assigned to niacin and colestipol, had average reductions of 20 percent in daily cholesterol intake (P<0.05) and had small reductions in fat and calorie intake at 12 months.
Lipid, Lipoprotein, and Apoprotein Levels
Base-line lipid levels and changes in those levels with treatment are shown in Table 3. The base-line total cholesterol level averaged 6.99 mmol per liter (270 mg per deciliter) for all the patients; it fell to 6.55 mmol per liter in the conventional-therapy group, to 4.71 mmol per liter in the lovastatin—colestipol group, and to 5.41 mmol per liter in the niacin—colestipol group. The mean LDL cholesterol level was 4.90 mmol per liter (189 mg per deciliter) at base line; the mean level fell 7 percent in the conventional-therapy group, 46 percent in the lovastatin—colestipol group, and 32 percent in the niacin—colestipol group. The apolipoprotein B level fell comparably with the LDL cholesterol level. The mean HDL cholesterol level, 0.98 mmol per liter (38 mg per deciliter) at base line, rose 5 percent in the conventional-therapy group, 15 percent in the lovastatin—colestipol group, and 43 percent in the niacin—colestipol group. Therapy increased the cholesterol content of the HDL particle.
Change in the Mean Severity of Proximal Stenosis
At base line, the average percentage of stenosis caused by the worst lesion in each of nine proximal segments was 34 percent. On average, after 2 1/2 years of conventional therapy, this index of stenosis increased by 2.1 percentage points (Table 4Table 4
Average Change in the Percent Stenosis and in the Minimum Diameter of the Lumen for Nine Proximal Lesions, for All Lesions, and for Lesions with Base-Line Stenosis of 50 Percent or More, Less than 100 Percent, or Less than 50 Percent.). By contrast, it decreased by 0.7 point during treatment with lovastatin and colestipol and by 0.9 with niacin and colestipol (P for trend <0.003). Thus, at the end of the study, on average, these nine lesions were almost 3 percentage points less severe among patients treated intensively rather than conventionally. This difference represents almost 1/10 of the amount of disease present at base line (34 percent stenosis). The minimum diameter, an alternative index of the severity of disease, in the nine proximal lesions averaged 1.91 mm for all patients. It decreased (worsened) by 0.050 mm with conventional therapy but increased (improved) by 0.012 mm with lovastatin and colestipol and by 0.035 with niacin and colestipol (P for trend <0.01). In a "worst-case" approach, analogous to the analysis of clinical data according to intention to treat, we assigned a proximal progression value of 2.1 percent stenosis (the mean change in the degree of proximal stenosis for patients assigned to the conventional-therapy group) to the 12 patients in the niacin—colestipol group and the 7 patients in the lovastatin—colestipol group who dropped out of the study. Despite this hypothetical dilution of the outcome, the therapeutic benefits remained statistically significant (Table 4).Analyses of Secondary End Points
The effect of treatment on certain subsets of lesions is shown in Table 4. These subsets included all lesions measured in each patient (mean number [±SD], 11.0±2.4), lesions causing severe stenosis (≥50 percent) or mild stenosis (<50 percent), and those that did not cause total occlusion at base line (<100 percent stenosis). Patients treated conventionally had consistent worsening of disease. The results in the two intensively treated patient groups were significantly different from those in the conventional-therapy group for each subset, showing either mean regression or no change in the severity of disease. Reopening totally occluded vessels probably reflects thrombolytic recanalization. As shown in Table 4, the 39 lesions causing total occlusion at base line could be excluded from the analysis with only minor effects on the observed results and on statistical significance.
Frequency of Progression and Regression
In good-quality images, a 10-point difference in the measured percent stenosis is visually convincing in a side-by-side comparison and was our criterion for definite change.22 , 40 Of the 1031 lesions examined in this study that were classified on visual examination as unchanged, only 8 (0.8 percent) had a measured change of ≥10 points; of 191 lesions that changed by ≥10 points, 162 (85 percent) were classified as definitely changed, and 21 (11 percent) as possibly changed. Furthermore, 10.2 percent stenosis is 3 SD of the repeat-measurement variance for 98 lesions remeasured by observers blinded to the previous result. "Progression only" (progression of ≥10 points in at least one of the nine proximal lesions without any comparable regression) occurred in 46 percent of the conventionally treated patients; by comparison, it occurred about half as frequently among the intensively treated patients (21 percent for the lovastatin—colestipol group and 25 percent for the niacin—colestipol group). "Regression only" (regression of ≥10 points in at least one of the nine proximal lesions without any comparable progression) was uncommon among those receiving conventional therapy (it occurred in 11 percent); it was about three times more common with intensive therapy, occurring in 32 percent of patients in the lovastatin—colestipol group and 39 percent in the niacin—colestipol group (P for trend = 0.005). Regression was much more common than expected; examples are shown in Figure 2Figure 2
Examples of Regression in Patients Treated Intensively.. Both regression and progression in the same patient were uncommon; only 4 percent of 120 patients had at least one lesion that progressed and at least one that regressed by ≥10 points.Frequency of Clinical Events
The clinical cardiovascular events we considered were death, proved myocardial infarction, or newly refractory ischemic symptoms that required either peripheral or coronary bypass or angioplasty. Fifteen patients had such events. Eleven of the 15 patients who had cardiovascular events required hospital admission primarily to stabilize severe ischemia. Of 13 patients who underwent invasive therapy, a clear symptomatic deterioration from a base-line New York Heart Association functional class I (n = 2) or II (n = 11) to functional class III (n = 4) or IV (n = 9) occurred despite appropriate medication. In each case, clinical deterioration could be linked to a lesion that increased in severity from a mean (±SD) of 53±17 percent stenosis at base line to 82±13 percent stenosis at the time of the event. Of four additional patients admitted for progressive angina who did not require invasive therapy, three were receiving conventional therapy and one was receiving lovastatin and colestipol. All clinical decisions were made by physicians who were independent of the study and blinded to the patients' treatment assignments and to the changes in their lipid levels. Although lipid measurements made outside the study might have influenced these decisions, we believe the facts cited above make such bias unlikely. The data on clinical events are presented in the intention-to-treat analysis shown in Table 5Table 5
Characteristics of 15 Patients Who Had Cardiovascular Events.*. Follow-up was completed to 32 months for all 146 patients. Eleven events (in 10 patients) occurred among the 52 patients originally assigned to the conventional-therapy group. In striking contrast (P =0.01), only 3 of the 46 patients assigned to the lovastatin—colestipol group had events (although these were the only instances of myocardial infarction and death), as did 2 of 48 assigned to the niacin—colestipol group. Overall, intensive lipid-lowering therapy reduced the incidence of clinical events by 73 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 23 to 90 percent).Correlates of Change in Proximal Stenosis
The variables for which the percent change was best correlated with the change in Δ%Sprox in the univariate analysis were the apolipoprotein B level (r = 0.38, P<0.0001), the LDL cholesterol level (r = 0.27, P<0.01), the total cholesterol level (r = 0.29), the HDL cholesterol level (r = −0.33, P<0.001), the apolipoprotein A-I level (r = −0.28), and the HDL2 level (r = −0.27). Also, the percent change in the systolic blood pressure (r = 0.22, P<0.01), in weight (r = 0.26), and in the Lp(a) lipoprotein level (r = 0.23) correlated with Δ%Sprox, as did the therapy code (placebo = 1, colestipol = 2, lovastatin—colestipol = 3, niacin—colestipol = 4; r = −0.30; P<0.001).
As Figure 3Figure 3
Results of Multivariate Statistical Analysis. shows, the "best" multivariate model for the estimation of Δ%Sprox included the percent change in the apolipoprotein B level, in the HDL cholesterol level, and in systolic blood pressure (BP). Also selected was ST-segment depression at peak effort on base-line treadmill exercise testing (ST), a sign of the presence of severe stenoses, which are known to be more likely to progress than milder lesions.22 , 40 Because these patients' LDL cholesterol levels were highly correlated with their apolipoprotein levels (r = 0.87), the LDL cholesterol level was not entered into the model after the apolipoprotein B level was selected. However, a nearly comparable model resulted when the LDL cholesterol level was substituted for the apolipoprotein B level, as follows: Δ%Sprox = 0.035 %ΔLDL −0.045 %ΔHDL +0.15 %Δ systolic BP −0.8 ΔST +1.2 (r = 0.47 vs. 0.51, P not significant). The therapy code, described above, failed to enter the model in competition with the risk variables, suggesting that the benefit of therapy is largely due to its effects on one or more of these variables.This model, if independently validated, may prove useful in predicting the benefit a patient will derive from his or her responses to therapy. Of 40 patients in the lowest tercile of estimated Δ%Sprox, 18 (45 percent) had regression only and only one (2.5 percent) had a clinical event. For these 40 patients, the median total cholesterol level during therapy was 4.74 mmol per liter (183 mg per deciliter), the LDL cholesterol level was 2.54 mmol per liter (98 mg per deciliter), the apolipoprotein B level was 94 mg per deciliter, the HDL cholesterol level was 1.24 mmol per liter (48 mg per deciliter), and the systolic blood pressure was 123 mm Hg. By comparison, of the 40 with values in the highest tercile, only 5 (12.5 percent) had regression only (P<0.0005), and 9 (22.5 percent) had clinical events (P<0.002).
Concomitant Drug Use
Aspirin was used at some time by 56 percent of the patients, beta-antagonists by 42 percent, diuretic agents by 23 percent, calcium-channel antagonists by 48 percent, long-acting nitrates by 45 percent, and angiotensin-converting—enzyme inhibitors by 7 percent — all equally distributed among the three treatment groups. Aspirin was used by 80 percent of the patients who had a clinical event and by 53 percent of those who did not. There was no correlation between the use of any of these drugs and changes in the severity of coronary disease.
Side Effects of Lipid-Lowering Drugs
At each visit, the patients were asked about known side effects of lipid-lowering drugs. After adjustment for base-line prevalence, moderate or severe constipation occurred at some time in 20 percent and 6 percent, respectively, of 118 patients taking colestipol, as did moderate or severe hemorrhoids in 10 percent and 5 percent. With niacin and colestipol, the uric acid level increased (from 6.9 to 7.5 mmol per liter, P<0.005), and gout developed in two patients. The serum aspartate aminotransferase level increased by about 20 percent (P<0.03) in both the niacin—colestipol and the lovastatin—colestipol groups, but in no patient did the level exceed three times the normal value. The alkaline phosphatase level increased by 22 percent (P<0.01) in the patients who received niacin and colestipol. Two patients in the niacin—colestipol group required the addition of antidiabetic drugs to their regimens. Niacin and colestipol were continued despite the development of acanthosis nigricans in three patients and a pruritic skin rash in four. Cataracts and cystic macular edema43 were not observed despite ophthalmologic evaluation of visual changes reported by the patients.
Discussion
Among men at high risk for cardiovascular events who have abnormal lipid levels and coronary atherosclerosis, a conventional approach to the treatment of hyperlipidemia resulted in frequent progression of coronary disease, infrequent regression, and a substantial number of cardiovascular events. By comparison, more intensive therapy to modify lipid levels halved the frequency of progression, tripled that of regression, and reduced (by 73 percent) the frequency of cardiovascular events. The beneficial effects on coronary lesions were independently associated with a reduction in the level of apolipoprotein B (or LDL cholesterol) and in systolic blood pressure and with an increase in the level of HDL cholesterol. (The Framingham Study includes LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure among the five most important predictors of future cardiovascular events among men.1) Strictly interpreted, our results apply to only a fraction of the roughly 6 million men in the American population who have angina or who have had a myocardial infarction,44 only about 1 million of whom are younger than 63, have an apolipoprotein level 5125 mg per deciliter, and have a family history of coronary artery disease.45 The generalization of these results to patients with coronary artery disease and normal lipid levels, or to asymptomatic or older men, or to women, will require further studies.
Arteriographically documented improvement may occur in several ways. In laboratory studies, the depletion of lipids46 47 48 or connective tissue47 , 49 in plaque or the fibrous transformation of the myointimal cellular response50 has been shown to diminish the size of plaques. Lysis of occlusive thrombi (Fig. 2) and of mural thrombi is common in the course of unstable clinical syndromes. Remodeling the underlying arterial architecture can increase the size of the lumen independently of changes in plaque.51 Relaxation of arterial vasomotor tone can also increase the size of the lumen.52 The role of the endothelium and the effects of therapy on its functional integrity are emerging as important factors in many of these processes.53 54 55 56 57
Our results show that quantitative arteriography is an effective method of assessing interventions against the atherosclerotic process. Although it answers different questions from those answered by clinical trials, arteriography permits a direct assessment of the vascular processes underlying clinical disorders, and it is currently the only reliable way to study the regression of lesions. Clinical trials of treatment for coronary disease have typically enrolled several thousand patients for 5-to-10-year periods at costs that have often exceeded $100 million. By contrast, this study, funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, cost less than $1 million. Consequently, we believe that large-scale clinical trials should be reserved for interventions that have been shown convincingly, in smaller trials in which arteriography is used, to retard the progression of arterial obstruction or to promote its regression.
Supported in part by grants (PO1 HL 30086 and RO1 HL 19451) from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, by a grant from the John L. Locke, Jr., Charitable Trust, by the University of Washington Clinical Research Center (NIH #RR-37), and by a grant (DK-35816) to the Clinical Nutrition Research Unit from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disorders.
We are indebted to many cardiologists in Seattle, particularly Drs. Theodore Hegg, James Fritz, Arthur Resnick, Mark Sharon, Robert Highley, George Frank, John Murray, Philip Hall, Douglas Stewart, and J. Ward Kennedy for their support; to Douglas McCarter, Pharm.D., of Upjohn, and Dieter Kramsch, M.D., Ph.D., and Jonathan Tobert, M.D., of Merck Sharp and Dohme, who kindly provided the study drugs and placebos; to Wendy Adams, R.N., M.N., who provided invaluable assistance in recruitment; to Dr. John Brunzell for editorial comments; to Laura B. Frazier, B.S., Edward I. Bolson, M.S., and Chris Prall, M.S., for their technical contributions; and to Ms. Mona Ries for assistance in the preparation of the manuscript and illustrations.
Source Information
From the Department of Medicine, Cardiology Division (G.B., S.M.S., J.-T.L., X.-Q.Z., B.D.B., H.T.D.), and the Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Nutrition (J.J.A., C.K., V.F.F.), University of Washington School of Medicine, and the Department of Biostatistics (L.D.F.), University of Washington School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Seattle. Address reprint requests to Dr. Brown at the Cardiology Division, RG-22, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195.
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